
(iass_ L(l Go o I 
Book ' h/*^^ 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



FIRST GRADE— NUMBER ONE. 



Teachers' Home Series 



L. B. McKENNA, M. A., LL. D.. 

President and Director. 



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Quincy School of Correspondence'/ •'*' 

Quincy, Illinois. ) 



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. I,. R.'JVlcKEJNNA, M. A., LI,. D. 



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The President and Di- 

Doctor L B- mcKentta, sector oftMs school, is 

one of the most prom- 
inent educators in this country. The fact that he 
is at the head of this institution is suflacient guarantee 
that the courses of instruction are of high standing, 
and that the school is conducted along conservative 
and honorable hues. The faculty is very strong, 
each member of it being a specialist, and great care 
has been taken in the preparation of the lessons, thus 
enabling students to make the most rapid and satis- 
factory progress. 

The different courses of training ar% practical, 
and have been prepared to meet the needs of the stu- 
dent, who desires thorough, comprehensive and 
progressive work, free from unnecessary technicali- 
ties, and a strict avoidance of everything savoring of 
a superficial character. 

The instruction is individual in every sense of the 
term; each student works under the personal direc- 
tion of his teacher. 

Professor McKenna is a teacher and author of 
wide experience, and occupies a high position pecu- 
liarly his own in the higher educational circles of 
Quincy. Few educators in this country have so wide 
an acquaintance. His graduates being located in 
every State and Territory, and in the countries be - 
yond the seas. 

The influence of his teaching, in starting young 
men and women in a successful educational career, 
can scarcely be estimated in its far reaching effect. 



(^■,r 



libraijy of congress 

Two Copies Received 

JAl^ II 1904 

Copyright Entry 
CLASS ^ XXc. No. 



L. 



^ l&P^t 2 



COPYRIGHT 

QUINCY BUSINESS COLLEGE. 

1902. 




INTRODUCTORY. 



"The best education is that which makes us capable of 
self education, because education cannot create, it can only 
develop". 



QUINCY SCHOOlv OF CORR:^SPOND]^NC:e, 

QUINCY, ILLINOIS. 



L. 2. McKenna, M A., LL. ©., President and Director, 



Dear Friend: 

The Quincy School of Correspondence extends to you 
a hearty greeting on the beginning of your Work with us. 
We trust and beheve that our association as instructors and 
learner during the six months' course will prove pleasant 
to us and profitable to you. We are thoroughly in earnest 
in our determination to do all we can to help you, That 
j'^ou are in earnest in the desire to be helped, your enroll- 
ment in our school is sufficient evidence. We offer here- 
with a few suggestions embodying some of the conditions 
which experience has taught us are essential to your 
success. 

First. It is of the greatest importance that the first 
month's work be thoroughly mastered in every detail. If, 
upon looking over the text, some of it seems dry and diffi- 
cult do not miss the opportunity thus afforded to show what 
is in you. By an effort of your will, compel your attention, 
your judgment, your reason, your memory to lay hold of 
the subject matter and to continue active until you are cer- 
tain that your mind is in full possession of each subject so 
far as it has been presented. The French have this proverb : 
**It is the first step that costs." If you conquer the first 

5 



iNTRODtJCTORir. 

month's lessons you will have overcome the inertia which 
always makes it so difficult to get started on any new line 
of work, and your prospect will be bright for completing 
your course satisfactorily. 

Second. There is often a tendency to relax one's effort 
after having performed the hard work involved in the first 
step. Do not yield for one moment to this tendency. If 
you persevere you will, in time, form the habit of applica- 
tion, and so find that the mastery of your lessons will 
become less irksome. 

Third, lliink your way through every lesson. Defini- 
tions should be memorized when their meaning is well 
understood, but your study will be barren of good results if 
you fail in the constant exercise of reason and imagination. 

Fourth. In writing your answer papers, try to express 
your thoughts in a few significant words; many papers are 
poor because they are too wordy; do not, however, econo- 
mize words to such an extent as to leave your thought in 
an incomplete or fragmentary state. 

Fifth. When answering your questions, write on good 
paper, using both sides; write carefully and legibly with 
good black ink; place your name at the top of every paper; 
leave a line between answers; when you have finished 
writing a paper, read it over carefully to see that answers 
are complete; be careful about spelling and the use of 
capitals. 

Sixth. Do not roll your papers when you mail them; 
arrange them in the order in which the subjects appear in 
the test questions and mail in a large envelope, paying full 
letter postage. Have the package weighed at the post 
office to determine the number of stamps necessary. 

Seventh. Your first lesson will be sent you shortly 
after we receive your enrollment at this office, unless a 

6 



INTRODUCTORY. 

specified time is stated on the enrollment blank to begin at 
a future date; also test questions. You will mail your 
answers to your questions at the time specified in letter of 
instructions after you receive lessons, and your work 
graded and mistakes corrected, with an estimate on your 
work, sent to you, also printed answers to questions sent. 
Then you will receive the second lesson, and so on, all 
through the term. 

With a large membership, an extensive correspondence, 
and a low rate of tuition, it is impossible to Write in full to 
each member. These suggestions are addressed to you 
personally; every one of them Is important; and success in 
our efforts to help you must depend largely on the heed 
you give to them. 

All mail should be addressed to the 

Quincy School of Correspondence, 

QUINCY. IZ^JLINOIS. 

With best wishes for your success, I am, 
Sincerely yours, 




HOME. STUDY. 

*'The real worth of a school is not measured by the 
amount of knowledge it imparts, but by the self activity it 
calls forth". 

In 1873 there was a Home Study Circle organized in 
Boston, Massachusetts, for home reading and conversation, 
the members fully reahzing the force of the statement of 
Lord Bacon, "Reading maketh a full man, conversation 
maketh a ready man, but writing maketh an exact man". 
A few years later there was organized a Literary Union, 
known as the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Society, 
for the purpose of home study; the instruction and direc- 
tion being carried on by mail. Since then a number of 
correspondence schools have been estabhshed all over the 
country, with the most gratifying results both to students 
and teachers. Many of the leading universities and colleges 
in America are now teaching, and have in the last few 
years organized departments of correspondence, with a 
view to accommodating those who, for any cause, cannot 
attend college. 

President Harper, of the University of Chicago, one of 
the leading institutions of America has said: 

"The work done by correspondence is even better than 
that done in the class-room. Students who come to us 
after a year of such work are better prepared than those 
who have taken it with us in the class-room. 

"The correspondence student does all the work himself; 
he does it in writing. He does t yenty times as much recit- 
ing as he would in a class of twenty people. He works 
out of the difficulties himself, and the results stay by him." 

Dr. Charles H. Parkhurst, one of the great New York 
preachers and reformers, has said: 

8 



HOMB STUDY. 

"The great fault of private attempts at education is 
that the learner is a blind leader of the blind, and, there- 
fore, runs the risk of never getting anywhere in particular. 
It is at this point that the scheme of education by corres- 
pondence comes to the rescue. If a man cannot go to 
college, the college can, in this way, in a very wide and 
true sense of the term, come to him." 

It must be very evident to any thoughtful person that 
these men, whose statements are just quoted, would not have 
made them if they did not have imphcit confidence in the 
benefits to be derived from the course of training suggested 
by them. The course of reading and training by corres- 
pondence is undoubtedly grand in its conception and suc- 
cessful in its operation; in short, a blessing to thousands 
of ambitious young men and women, who otherwise would 
be deprived of the advantages of a coUege or business 
training. 

ADVANTAGES. 

1. This school enables teachers to prepare for exam- 
ination at home, and prepare in such a way as to pass with 
ease in any county. 

2. Six weeks' Normal will cost #25 or $50 at the low- 
est estimate, and a Normal shorter than six weeks will 
amount to nothing. This Course will cost much less, and 
will be far more profitable than any six weeks' Normal. 

3. One feature that ought to commend it to all 
teachers is the fact that they can do their review work in 
such a way and at such a time as to leave them free during 
vacation time to enjoy rest and recreation like other pro- 
fessional people. 

4. The previous strain of an eight months' term of 
school, followed by a Normal driU during the heated term, 

9 



HOMlg STUDY . 

leaves the teacher worn out at the beginning of the coming 
year's work. To obviate this is one of the objects of the 
Correspondence School. 

The Diploma given at the completion of the Course will 
have weight with School Boards and will consequently 
influence them in the selection of teachers. 

6. County Superintendents will be glad to have their 
teachers do this work; because, it will add strength to the 
teaching force of any county, and leave teachers in better 
shape to attend the Annual Institute, and derive greater 
benefits while doing so. 

6. This Course gives thorough instruction in Pedagogy 
and this alone ought to be worth the price of tuition, as 
Professor McKenna is one of the best teachers in the 
United States. 

7. This plan contemplates a thorough drill and review 
under competent direction. It will not interfere with the 
teacher's regular work, but will better qualify him to per- 
form his ordinary school duties. It will give him an oppor- 
tunity to use what he learns as he goes along with his daily 
routine work. 

8. If the teacher cannot go to the Normal School, it 
brings the Normal School to the teacher in a very broad 
sense and without the expense of board and the cost of 
travel. 

THE DESIGN OF OUR CORRESPONDENCE COURSE. 

Public school teachers who may wish to secure a higher 
grade certificate, or who feel that they are lacking in 
knowledge sufficient to teach "the young idea how to 
shoot", will be particularly benefited by securing this train- 
ing. Teachers and other persons, who, by reason of age or 
other conditions, cannot afford the time nor money to 
leave home to attend college, will find this a very excellent 

10 



HOME STUDY. 

means of securing the advantages of instruction by mail; 
in short, all information in the course of instruction planned 
that may be sought can be had for the asking. This will 
also be found an excellent means for securing the ordinary 
college post graduate course, because there is no donbt of 
the truth of the statement, "When a man puts learning in 
his head, he is furnishing himself with the means of putting 
money in his purse, and thereby securing the best form of 
wealth," because wealth of intellect is first in rank among 
all thoughtful persons. 

duigencb is the mother of success. 

Sir Joshua Reynolds has said: "If a man has great 
ability, industry will make him greater, and if he has but 
moderate abiUty, industry will sometimes supply the 
deficiency." Real merit will sooner or later bring lasting 
success. Success is said to depend largely upon an intelli- 
gent purpose, kept well under control. 

A man's success in Uf e is generally in proportion to his 
confidence in himself, and the energy and persistency with 
which he follows his aim. There is a Persian maxim which 
says, "He who hath no mission, hath no ambition, and he 
who hath no ambition, hath no purpose in Ufe." It must 
be evident to any thoughtful person, if a man has no con- 
fidence in himself, others will have no confidence in him. 
A person who can easily be discouraged, or turned aside 
from his purpose, is one who will never succeed under the 
sharp competition of every-day fife. A man without unity 
of purpose and persistent effort, will never reach the goal 
of his ambition. 

Confidence in one's own effort has brought many a man 
to prominence. Pestalozzi, Froebel, David Page, Horace 

11 



hom:^ study. 

Mann, Edgerton Ryerson, and all other teachers who havt 
made their mark in life, have had a purpose, and have 
worked up to it. 

To secure these advantages enroll at once as a student 
in the 

Quincy Scfiool of Correspondence, 

QUINCY, ILLINOIS. 




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BOTANY. 

(FIRST PAPER). 
INTRODUCTORY. 

Botany is a study which seeks to answer any reas- 
onable question about plants, and as such covers a broad 
field. It may be divided into the following subdivisions : 

Morpholog"y (mor-fol'-o-jy).— The study of the 
mere form and structure of a plant, without regard to its 
character as a living thing. 

Geographical Distribution.— The range of the 
various kinds of plants over the earth's surface. 

Vegetable Physiology. — The plant in dfetion, how 
it lives, feeds, breathes, grows and reproduces its kind. 

Vegetable Ecology (e-col'-o-jy).— The relations of 
the plant to the conditi©ns under which it hves, viz. : effects 
of soil, chmate and friendly or hostile animals upon the ex- 
ternal form and internal structure and habits of plants. 

Economic Botany.— The uses of plants to man. 

Systematic Botany. -The classification and re- 
lationships of plants to each other. 

In this work-it will be necessary to confine ourselves 
to the morphology, physiology and ecology of plants, and a 
general outline of the classification. The topics cannot be 
discussed entirely separate from each other, as this would 
necessitate much repitition and consequent waste of time 
and space. Furthermore, the earnest student will be con- 
tinually on the lookout during his walks through field 
and forest for verifications and demonstration of principles 
and phenomena mentioned in this work. With simple lens 
and pen-knife he will discover for himself a vast store of 
information, and by means of a few famihar seeds planted 



BOTANY. 

and allowed to come to maturity, he will learn, first hand, 
much about the structure, growth and physiological pro- 
cesses of plants. 

SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS. 

Let us examine a bean or a pea in the pod. We find 
that the seed is attached to a ridge (placenta, pla-sen'-ta) 
along one side of the pod by means of a tiny stalk (funi- 
culus or funicle, fu-nik'-u-lusor fu'-ni-k'l). When the 
seed is ripe and faUs from the pod the funiculus generally 
breaks off close to the seed, leaving a rounded scar (hilum, 
hi'-lum). Near the hilum will be found a minute pore 
(micropyle, mi'-cro-pile), the origin of which we shall 
learn later. 

Soak some beans over night in water, or until soft, 
an 1 examine the internal structure. We find a tough outer 
coat (testa) and a dehcate inner coat (tegnien) surround- 
ing the kernel (embryo, em'-bry-o). The embryo con- 
sists of two thickened bodies (cotyledons, kot'-i-le'-duns) 
fastened together at the base; a small pointed body (radi- 
cle, rad'-i-k'l) arising from this juncture and bending around 
the edges of the cotyledons; and a pair of tiny leaves (plu- 
mule, plu'-mule) arising from the same juncture, but lying 
between the two cotyledons. 

Place a few soaked beans between pieces of moist 
blotting paper, and enclose in a vessel of some kind to keep 
them from drying. Examine on successive days. We find 
the radicle enlarges and soon protrudes through the coats, 
and endeavors to take a downward direction. If allowed 
to continue its growth, it will become the main root of 
the plant. Soon Kttle knobs appear on its sides back near 
its origin. These grow out into lateral roots. . In the 
meantime the plumule enlarges, pushes apart the cotyle- 
dons and emerges as a pair of green leaves with a bud be- 



BOTANY. 

tween them. Continued growth of this portion of the seed- 
ling produces the upright stem with all its leaves, branches 
and flowers. 

Now, let us examine, in a similar manner, some 
grains of corn. A grain of corn is not a seed alone, as is 
the bean, but consists of a kernel enclosed in a tight- fitting 
covering composed of seed coats and ovary walls all grown 
together. It corresponds to the entire bean pod with the 
included seeds, except that there is only one seed instead 
of many. Remove the seed coats and observe that the ker- 
nel is made up of two parts — a compact, cream colored, boat 
shaped portion (the embryo) and a whitish or yellowish, 
starchy mass (the endosperm, en'-do iperm). The embryo 
is made up of a single, keel-shaped cotyledon (Icutellum 
sku-tel'-lum), partially enclosing a slender plumule com- 
posed Ojl several tiny, rolled-up leaves. At the base of the 
plumule a minute, pointed projection represents the radicle. 
, If some grains of corn be allowed to sprout, it will 
be found that the radicle rapidly elongates to form the pri- 
mary root; from around the edges of the plumule sec- 
ondary roots arise; the plumule enlarges and pushes its 
way upward to form the stalk of the corn, and the scutel- 
lum remains in the ground in contact with the endosperm 
within the seed coats. 

Plant some beans and corn and observe the 
growth of both bean and corn seedlings for several weeks. 
Notice that the cotyledons of the beans rise to the surface 
of the ground and become green and thin. They are 
really leaves and function as such for a short time but af- 
ter a while they shrivel and fall. Their work is done. 
Their store of food has nourished the young plant until it 
could develop organs of its own for obtaining an4 assimi- 
lating food. The single cotyledon of the corn dpes ijot 



BOTANir. 

appear above the ground but remains within the grain as 
an absorbing organ to dissolve the starch of the endosperm 
and pass on the nutriment thus obtained to the growing 
seedhng. 

If other seeds be experimented with, it will be 
found that many with thick, fleshy cotyledons like the pea 
and buck-eye never raise the cotyledons above the ground. 
Many seeds, hke the four-o'clock and poppy, with two 
cotyledons have an endosperm Hke the corn and their 
cotyledons remain in contact with the endosperm until it 
is all absorbed, and then they come to the surface. . 

The number of cotyledons enables us to subdivide 
the Seed-bearing plants into three main divisions; (1) 
monocotyledons, with one cotyledon, as the corn, 
grasses, hUes, orchids, etc; (2) dicotyledons, with two 
cotyledons, as the bean, squash, rose, maple, etc. ; and (3) 
polycotyiedons with more than two cotyledons, as the 
pine, spruce, hemlock, cedar, etc. 

THE PLANT BODY. 

In all plants there is a certain amount of material ar- 
ranged in definite form and controlled by an obscure com- 
bination of powers which we call life. Some of this ma- 
terial remains for a short time as a part of the body and is 
then discarded; other material remains a part of the body 
as long as hfe exists. That which is changing most rapidly 
is the living substance called protoplasm. If there are 
parts of the body not living they have been formed by the 
protoplasm and are generally controlled by it. 

When the plant body is large it is generally made up 
of distinct parts called members. Thus the corn has two 
principal members, a root below the ground and a shoot 
above the ground. The root consists of many subordinate 
members, the roots and rootlets; the shoot consists of 



BOTANY. 

stem and leaves; the leaves of blade and petiole, etc. 
Simpler plants may kave no members at all but, as in the 
pond scums, may consist of a row of ceUs or, in the diatoms, 
of a single cell. 

Plant- cells are the units of which plants are built. All 
plants, from the lowest to the highest, are composed of 
cells simple in the lowest forms, varied and much modified 
in the higher forms. A plant -cell is a minute portion of 
Mving matter, the i>rotoplasin, generally surrounded by 
a membrane, the cell wall. The protoplasm is the es- 
sential part of the cell. It constructs the cell- wall. Rarely 
if ever is it uniform throughout, but shows distinct parts, 
each having special work to do. In the moit complete 
and active ceUs the greater part of the protoplasm con- 
sists of a finely granular or nearly transparent, colorless 
portion, the cytoplasm, in which other parts seem em- 
bedded. Protoplasm is not a single substance, but a mix- 
ture of several different substances, so intimately mixed 
and so easily destroyed that it is impossible to analyze it. 
Moreover the nature and amount of the components are 
probably variable. In all but the youngest ceUs there are 
one or more bubbles of water in the protoplasm. These 
appear as clear spaces and are sometimes called vacuoles. 

Embedded in the cytoplasm is a spherical, ovoid or 
elongated body, called the nucleus. It is composed of 
threads of protoplasm and is sometimes surrounded by a 
very dehcate membrane. Inside the nucleus there may 
be one or more small bodies, called nucleoli. The 
nucleus is a very important part of the cell. It often 
divides into two, and this division is commonly followed 
by the formation of a partition wall separating the cell into 
two parts, each containing one of the daughter -nuclei. 



BOTANY. 

In most cells there are also other small bodies besides 
the nucleus embedded in the cytoplasm. These are called 
plastids. In young cells they are small, rounded, color- 
less bodies. As the cell grows older they increase in size 
and number. When mature and in cells which lie near the 
surface of green plants, they are commonly rounded or 
biscuit- shaped, of spongy texture, and colored yellowish - 
green by a substance called chlorophyll. These are 
commonly known as chloroplasts or chlorophyll 
bodies. If colorless they are called leucoplasts. In 
some cells, particularly those for the storage of food, they 
may develop into smaller, denser, flattened or roundish, 
uncolored bodies, whose work is usually to gather starch 
into grains. In other cells, particularly in highly colored 
parts the plastids may become of most diverse form and 
size and take on some color such as red or yellow . These 
are known as chromoplasts. 

The ceU-wall is formed by the protoplasm, and in 
green plants when first formed is composed chiefly of a 
horny substance called cellulose with which, as it grows 
older, various other substances, such as crystals, starch 
grains, etc., may be mixed. 

Differentiation of Tissues.— Among the simplest 
plants, the Algae and Fungi, the cells forming the plant 
body are practically all alike, both as to form and work. 
What one cell does all cells do, and there is very little de- 
pendence of one cell upon another. As plant bodies be- 
come larger this condition of things cannot continue, as 
all of the cells cannot come into the same relations. Some 
of the cells can receive their food supply only through 
other cells and thus the body becomes differentiated. 
Then again, certain cells must become specially differen- 
tiated as organs of reproduction while the others remain 

6 



BOTANY. 

as nutritive cells. Thus we come to have what we call 
tissues. 

A tissue is an aggregation of similar cells doing 
similar work. In the simplest plants the nutritive body is 
practically one tissue. This primitive nutritive tissue is 
composed of cells with thin walls and active protoplasm, 
and is catled parenchyma (pa-ren'-ki-ma) meaning 
"parent tissue." The three dimensions of these cells are 
approximately equal, though sometimes they are elon- 
gated. Until abandoned, such cells contain very active 
protoplasm, and it is in them that nutritive work and cell 
division is carried on. 

So long as these parenchyma cells retain the power of 
cell division the tissue is called meristem (mer'-is-stem) 
from a Greek word meaning "to divide." When the cells 
stop dividing, the tissue is said to be permanent. The 
growing points of organs, as stems, roots and leaves are 
composed of parenchyma which is meristematic, and 
meristem occurs wherever growth is going on. 

All other tissues are derived from parenchyma, and 
as the work of nutrition and reproduction is always re- 
tained by the parenchyma cells, the derived tissues are 
for mechanical rather than for vital purposes. When a 
plant body becomes complex a conductive system is ne- 
cessary, so that the different regions of the body may be 
put into communication. The material absorbed by the 
roots must be carried to the leaves, and the food manu- 
factured in the leaves must be carried to regions of growth 
and storage. This business of transportation is provided 
for by specially organized vessels known collectively as 
mestome. 

If a complex body is to maintain its form, and especially 
if it is to stand upright and become large, it must develop 



BOTANY. 

structures rigid enough to furnish mechanical support. 
All such tissues are collectively known as stereome. 
Ferns and seed- bearing plants are mostly made up of 
living and working parenchyma, which is traversed by 
mechanical mestome and stereome. 

The two principal kinds of stereome are coUenchyma 
and sclerenchyma, meaning "sheath-tissue" and "hard 
tissue" respectively. In coUenchyma the cells are thick- 
ened at the angles and have very elastic walls, making a 
tissue well adapted for parts which are growing in length. 
The chief mechanical tissue for parts which have stopped 
growing in length is sclerenchyma. The cells are thick - 
walled, usually elongated, and with tapering ends. The 
so-called "fibers" come under this head. 

The mestome or vascular tissues are of two prominent 
kinds, the tracheary vessels for water conduction, and 
the sieve vessels, for conduction of organized food. The 
tracheary vessels are cells with heavy walls and usually 
large diameter. The thickening of the walls is not uni- 
form, giving them -a very characteristic appearance, the 
thickening taking the form of spiral bands, rings or reticu- 
lations. Often the reticulation has such close meshes that 
the cell- wall has the appearance of being covered with 
thin spots, and such cells are called "pitted vessels." The 
spiral and ringed vessels are usually much smaller in 
diameter than the pitted ones. The true tracheary cells 
are more or less elongated and without tapering ends, 
fitting end to end and forming a continuous longitudinal 
series, suggesting a trachea, and hence the name. The 
water absorbed by the roots of a plant ascends through 
the tracheary vessels. 

Sieve vessels are so named because in their walls 
special areas are organized which are perforated like the 

8 



BOTANY. 

lid of a pepper box or a ''sieve." These perforated areas 
are the sieve-plates, and through them the vessels com- 
municate with each other and with the adjacent tissue. 
The food elaborated in the leaves is conveyed to the grow- 
ing parts of the plant by the sieve vessels. 

ROOTS. 

Root-Structure.- It is necessary to carefully dis- 
tinguish between true roots like those of the corn and 
bean and the very simple, hair-like structures ( rhizoids, 
ri'-zoids) which perform the root functions for the lower 
plants, hke the algae, fungi and mosses. Old roots are 
often confusing because they partake very much of the 
nature of stems, which will be discussed later. 

A cross -section of a young root under the com- 
pound microscope, reveals three characteristic regions, 
namely, (1) an outer layer, the epidermis; (2) a thick, 
cellular cortex; and (3) a central, woody axis or cylin- 
der, (sometimes called the stele), perforated by many 
tubes or ducts, which are continuous with the ducts of the 
stem and leaves. These ducts are near the outer edge of 
the woody axis near the cortex, where they can the more 
readily receive the moisture absorbed from the soil. 

The tender growing tip of the rootlet is protected 
from injury as it forces its way through the soil, by a loose 
coating of epidermal cells called the root-cap. If the 
finger be supposed to represent the root, a short finger- 
stall, if it were attached to the tip of the finger, might be 
fairly taken to represent the root-cap. Only in rare cases 
is the root- cap entirely wanting. Serving to protect the 
tenderer portion of the root behind, the root-cap is itself 
constantly exposed to injury. The outer and older parts 
are therefore, either worn away through mechanical con- 
tact, or dying, they degenerate and break down into a 



BOTANY. 

slightly mucilaginous material which facilitates th« pas- 
sage of the root through the soil. This degeneration or 
mechanical wear is constantly repaired within at the grow- 
ing point of the root. The thickness of the root- cap is 
thus maintained throughout its existence without much 
change. 

On the parts of the root back of the tip the epi- 
dermis sometimes sloughs off entirely, exposing the cells 
of the cortex itself, as in the grasses, hlies and sedges; or, 
more commonly, only the outer layer sloughs off, leaving 
the innermost portion as a covering of the cortex. It is 
too delicate to be distinguished by the unaided eye, except 
at the tip and further back where it produces root-hairs. 

If we examine the roots of some seedhngs ger- 
minated on blotting paper, we shall find just back of the 
tip a fine fuzz. Under a compound microscope this fuzz 
is seen to consist of numerous slender hollow bodies called 
root-hairs. Each root-hair is a complete plant-cell, a 
modification or extension of one of the superficial cells of 
the cortex or epidermis, as the finger of a glove is the ex- 
tension of the palm. Only one root hair arises from a 
superficial cell. They are usually unbranched and without 
transverse partitions. In rare cases they are wanting. 
They live for a shorter or longer time but are always, as 
compared with the duration of the root, quite transient. 
The older part of the root therefore, is without root-hairs 
because of their death. The youngest part of the root is 
Ukewise free from them because they have not yet been 
produced. As the root grows in length, new root-hairs 
are continually being produced, and the older ones are 
dying at an equal rate, so that a zone of hairs is found only 
upon the younger parts of the roots. Each root-hair pos- 
sesses a thin wall of woody material (cellulose, sel'-u-los) 

10 



BOTANY. 

enclosing a mass of jelly-like substance called protoplasm. 
This protoplasm does not occupy the whole of the cell 
cavity but lines the walls, leaving a space within, which is 
filled with a watery fluid called cell sap. 

Root Pressure.— As a dilute solution will diffuse 
through a membrane into a stronger solution more rapidly 
than the stronger can diffuse in the opposite direction, so 
the water in the soil, which is a dilute solution of mineral 
salts, will diffuse through the protoplasmic membrane of 
root-hairs into the stronger solution of cell sap. This pro- 
cess, by means of which the water gets into the root-hairs, 
is called osmose, (oz'-mos). The excess of water within the 
cell causes it to become turgiij like an inflated football. 
The addition of so much water to the cell sap of the root 
hairs causes it to be more dilute than that of the adjoining 
cells, so some of the water is passed on by osmose to the 
next cell of the cortex. This continues until the water 
reaches the duct traversing the root and ascending the 
stem. -The turgor produced in the root by osmose pro- 
duces a pressure (root-pressure) sufficient to force the 
sap to a great height. Experiment has shown that this 
root pressure alone in some trees is sufficient to raise the 
sap over eighty feet. That this pressure exists can easily 
be shown by cutting off the trunk of an actively growing 
tree. The sap will be forced up and will ooze out of the 
top of the stump. In small plants root-pressure is prob- 
ably great enough to force the sap to the leaves but in the 
larger plants and most trees it is probably not sufficient. 
Other forces not thoroughly understood are thought to as- 
sist in this work. 

The cortex generally consists of large thin- walled cells 
which have become partially separated from one another, 
leaving lai^r or smaller intercellular spaces. 

n 



BOTANY. 

The stele, or central axis of the root, is an aggregate 
of tissues composed of elongated or fused cells Cvascular 
strands). These strands are of two kinds, wood strands 
or tracheary tissue for the conduction of water, and bast 
strands or sieve tissue for carrying foods. They are so 
placed that they alternate with each other about the outer 
part of the stele. The strands may be in contact with one 
another in the center, forming what may be called a ra- 
diate bundle, or the center of the stele may be oc- 
cupied by pith, parenchyma tissue. The number of vas- 
cular strands constituting the stele is various, being as few 
as four or as many as forty. The ordinary number, how- 
ever, is from eight to twenty. 

Root Growth. — If the root of a germinating seedling 
be marked by a series of dots placed equidistant through- 
out its length, and then allowed to grow some more, it 
will be found that the dots just back of the tip grow away 
from each other more rapidly than those elsewhere, show- 
ing that the region of most rapid elongation is just behind 
the tip. The part of the root near the seed grows mainly 
in thickness. In like manner it can be shown that the 
part of the stem which elongates most rapidly is near the 
tip. 

Secondary Changes in Roots. — Shortly after 
any portion of the root ceases to increase in length it under- 
goes minor changes in structure. The external layer of 
cells generally sloughs off carrying with it the root-hairs 
and exposing the next inner layer of cells. This layer be- 
comes shghtly altered so as to be rather impervious to 
water and incapable of absorbing water from the soil. It 
follows from this that only the younger part of the root, 
that is, the portion which has not undergone secondary 
changes, is capable of absorbing water. In some 

12 



BOTANY. 

roots the secondary changes result in increasing the 
diameter sometimes very greatly, by the formation of 
concentric layers of new tissue in two or more regions 
called the cambiuin regions. 

The outer growing layer, or cork cambium, 
usually formed in the cortex produces tissues of such a na- 
ture as to protect the parts within. They constitute the 
peridermi, and are ordinarily cork-hke, i. e., thin walled 
and impervious to water. Those cells which he outside 
the layer of cork are therefore cut off from a supply of 
food and soon perish. 

The inner growing layer, stelar cambium, is de- 
veloped within the stele and follows a tortuous course 
lying outside the wood strands and inside the blast 
strands. The new tissues produced are similar to those 
already existing in the stele. 

If mechanical tissues are largely produced a 
woody root results, which, if long lived, shows in the stele 
concentric rings indicating yearly additions. As the root 
thickens the outside parts become fissured lengthwise. 
Thus in an old and large root of the woody type, all the 
parts outside the central wood constitute a bark which 
becomes furrowed lengthwise, like the bark of the trunks 
of many trees. Such secondary thickening finally pro- 
duces in the roots a structure which is almost identical 
with that of Stems which have undergone secondary 
thickening. 

If the new tissues produced by secondary changes 
are chiefly thin- walled cells, the root often becomes very 
thick and fleshy, as in the carrot, turnip, radish, sweet po- 
tato, beet, dalhUa, artichoke, etc. Such roots serve the 
plant as store houses of reserve food, and are consequently 
useful to animals as food. 

13 



BOTANY. 

Branching of Roots.— When a root produces a 
branch, in the great majority of cases the origin of the 
branch is in the stele. The growth begins very near the 
surface of the stele. Soon a growing point is formed, in 
its early stage completely hidden by the cortex, through 
which it gradually makes its way, partly disorganizing the 
tissues by pressure, and, probably, partly by actually di- 
gesting and absorbing the material of these cells. When 
it reaches the surface it emerges from a distinct rift in the 
cortex. If the cortex of a root is stripped off the branches 
do not come off with it but remain attached to the stele 
and leave the holes in the cortex through which they pro- 
truded. 

New leafy shoots may be produced by roots either 
normally or as a result of injuries. In a partially developed 
form these constitute buds. They arise in the same places 
and develop in the same way as root branches; that is, 
they originate in the stele, and, as they continue to grow, 
burst through the cortex. The shoots so produced grow 
in a normal manner. Very rarely the growing point of 
the root, casting off the root-cap, becomes itself the grow- 
ing point of the shoot. This alteration is usually the result 
of artificial reversal of the position of the root, being 
brought about in some potted plants by turning them up- 
side down. 

Root-Properties. — If grains of wheat, corn, beans, 
etc., be placed in various positions between vertical 
panes of glass and kept moist until they germinate, it will 
be found that the radicles, no matter in which direction 
they point when emerging from the seed, will turn around 
and grow downward. After they have got a good start, 
turn the panes upside down so that the radicles will all 
point upward. After a few hours the tips will begin to 

14 



BOTAlSrg. 

turn over and eventually will grow downward again. It 
cannot be the light which causes this, as the same results 
will be obtained when the experiment is performed in 
complete darkness. The attraction of the earth, or 
gravity, is apparently the cause of this phenomenon, and 
hence the influence of this force upon the plant is called 
geotropism (je-ot'-ro-pism) from two Greek words 
meaning earth -turning. When the plumule appears it 
will turn upward. Here also the stimulus seems to be the 
force of gravity. The same influence is apparent in the 
vertical growth of tree trunks on a hillside and the up- 
ward growth of stems which have been trampled to the 
ground. Growth toward the earth is sometimes called 
progeotropism to distinguish it from growth away from 
the earth, apogeotropism or negative geotropism. 
The lateral growth of secondary root is called diageot- 
ropism. If the tip of the radicle be cut off the root is no 
longer geotropio and will not turn downward when placed 
in an inverted or horizontal position, showing that, while 
the motor zone lies back of the root tip, it is the tip which 
receives the stimulus and is the receptive zone. 

Place a few germinating seedlings inside a small 
roll of wire netting with some moist sawdust, and let the 
radicles protrude through the meshes and dangle down- 
ward in the air. Suspend the roll in an inclined position. 
In about twenty four hours the root tips will turn toward 
the moist sawdust and eventually will grow along the edge 
of the sawdust. This reaction of the root to moisture is 
called hydrotropism (hi-drot'-ro-pism). Sometimes 
roots of trees are so strongly influenced by moisture that 
they wiU depart from the usual direction of growth and 
seek the source of water supply. 



BOTANY. 

Another interesting root property may be noted 
in this connection. When a strawberry runner strikes 
root at the tip, the roots, after they obtain anchorage in 
the soil, pull the tip a little beneath the surface, as if they 
had gripped the soil and then shghtly contracted. The 
sa^me thing may be observed in the process known as 
"layering" by which a stem, as a bramble, is bent down 
and covered with soil. The covered joints strike root and 
the pulling follows. A very plain illustration of the same 
fact can be obtained from many crevice plants. These 
plants send their root systems into crevices of rocks, and 
spread a little rosette of leaves against the rock face. In 
the next year a new rosette of leaves, developed further 
up the stem is also found against the rock face. It is evi- 
dent that the stem has been pulled back into the crevice 
enough to bring the new leaves against the rock, and this 
pulling has been effected by the new roots, which have laid 
hold of the crevice soil or waUs. 

Water Roots. — Stagnant water generally be- 
comes covered with tiny, green, disk-like plants (the 
common Duck Weeds) which float about dangling from the 
under surface clusters of whitish thread-Hke roots. These 
are typical water roots. If the level of the water sinks 
so as to bring the tips of the roots to the mucky soil they 
usually do not penetrate and become soil roots. Some- 
times plants which ordinarily develop soil roots, if brought 
into proper water relations, will develop water roots. 
Willows and other stream bank plants show this charac- 
teristic. In such cases the numerous clustered roots show 
their water character. Often root systems developing in 
the soil enter drain pipes and develop water roots in such 
abundance as to choke the drain. When a Hayacinth bulb 

16 



is grown in a vessel of water, this cliaracteristic bunching 
of water roots may be seen. 

Some plants growing in water or in very wet swamps 
sometimes modify their roots to serve as floats. In these 
cases, the voluminous cortex consists of large cells, with 
huge intercellular spaces which are filled with air. The 
root thus serves to buoy up the parts of the plant to which 
it is attached and to assist in its respiration. Such roots 
may be called float-roots. 

Air Roots.— In tropical regions where the air is 
very moist many plants develop numerous roots which 
dangle in the air and absorb moisture. In the Orchids 
there is usually a mass of sponge -like absorbent tissue 
about the roots known as the velamen (ve-la'-men). 
Examples of aerial plants, or Epiphytes, are some of the 
Orchids, the Stag Horn Fern of our greenhouses and the 
Black Moss growing upon the Live Oaks of the Gulf 
States. 

Clinging Roots.— Ivies, the Trumpet Creeper and 
many other climbing vines develop roots which do no 
work of absorption, but simply serve to fasten the plant 
body to some support by sending tiny tendril-^hke branches 
into crevices of walls or tree trunks. Many sea weeds are 
anchored to rocks by grasping structures or hold- fasts. 

Prop Roots. — In swampy ground or where a 
tree has a poorly developed primary root system trees 
often put out roots from the trunk, or branches, which 
serve as props for the tree. The Screw-Pine, often seen 
in greehouses, puts out prop roots near the base of the 
trunk. The wide -spreading branches of the Banyan tree 
are supported by numerous prop roots. One of these trees 
in Ceylon is recorded as having 360 large and 3000 small 

17 



BOTANY. 

prop roots, and covering an area large enough for a vil- 
lage of 100 huts. 

Roots of Parasites. — ^A parasite sends processes 
into the body of another hving plant (the host) to 
get its food supply. Such absorbing organs are called 
haustoria. The common Mistletoe and Dodder are good 
examples of seed-bearing parasites. 

Forms of Roots.— We found that in the bean 
there waa one main root which sent off many lateral 
branches. In the corn we found a primary root and 
several secondary roots. The secondary roots were not 
branches of the primary, but had a separate origin, and 
eventually were as large as, and indistinguishable from 
the primary. A root like that of the bean is a tap-root. 
The roots of the corn are fibrous. If the tap-root is 
much branched it is said to be ramous (ra'-mus). If the 
tap-root becomes thickened and fleshy, it may then be 

(1) Conical (kon'-i-kal) broad at top, tapering below. 
Ex. carrot. 

(2) Fusiform (fu'-si-form), spindle shaped. Ex. radish. 

(3) Napiform (na'- pi -form), turnip -shaped. 
Imagine the fibers of the fibrous form to become 

thickened and fleshy; we then have the following forms: 

(1) Fascicled (pron. fas'-si-k'ld), composed of a 
bundle of spindle-shaped roots. Ex. Dahlia. 

(2) Nodulous (pron. nod'-u-lus), composed of many 
fibers with scattered enlargements or knots. Ex. Spirea. 

(3) Moniliform (pron. mo-nir-i-form) having 
the enlargements at regular intervals, like the beads of a 
necklace. Ex. Toothwort. 

Specially Modified Roots.— In a very few plants 
aerial roots are modified into tendrils, being slender, 
sensitive to contact, clasping the objects which they 



BOTANY. 

touch, if of suitable size, and thus assisting the plant to 
climb. In some instances they are altered into thorns, 
being short, rigid, and sharp pointed. In others being ex- 
posed to light they develop chloroplasts, which enables 
them to act as organs for the manufacture of food. 

SHOOTS. 

Primary Shoot.— The first shoot that develops is 
called the primary shoot. The tip of the shoot is the 
region in which the formation of new cells is taking place. 
This region of young cells has no definite limit below, but 
passes insensibly into the older tissue, which it produces. 
The tip may have any shape from a sharp cone to a low 
dome. Close to the apex the shoot begins to show a dif- 
ferentiation into a central axis and lateral outgrowths. 
The first of these are swellings which form leaves. Later 
above the leaf rudiments, the rudiments of the lateral 
shoots may appear. The older leaves upon the sides of 
the axis outgrow the younger ones and the developing axis, 
and arch over them in such a way as to form a more or 
less compact structure, which constitutes a terminal bud. 
A bud, then may be defined as an undeveloped shoot, 
whose older leaves protect the younger and particularly 
the youngest region, the apex. From the terminal bud 
arise all the members of the primary shoot. 

A shoot may be studied to the best advantage in the 
autumn. The shoots of the Horse -Chestnut or Buckeye 
have well developed buds, but almost any tree will furnish 
good material for study. In the autumn the buds which 
are to develop into the next seasons leafy shoots or flower 
axes are fully formed. If one picks to pieces a terminal 
bud he will find that it is composed of hard scales (modi- 
fied leaves) overlapping and arching over the tender 
green leaves and growing apex in the center. Often there 

10 



BOTANY. 

is an abundance of wooly hairs surrounding the central 
portion and the whole bud may be coated over with a 
resinous substance. The wooly coat serves to prevent the 
radiation of heat and thus the growing apex escapes being 
chilled and destroyed in cold weather. The resinous coating 
renders the bud impervious to rain. Within these pro- 
tective coverings well formed foliage leaves are often 
found or even an entire cluster of flower buds. In some 
plants the scaly covering is entirely absent and the buds 
are said to be naked. If the bud contains foliage leaves 
only it is a leaf -bud; if flowers only, it is a flower-bud; if 
both leaves and flowers, it is a mixed bud. 

When a scaly bud develops into a shoot the scales fall 
off leaving scars where they were attached to the stem. 
As these scars are grouped into a ring surrounding the 
stem they may be designated as ring-scars. The ring 
soars are persistent for a long time and as there is only one 
terminal bud and hence one ring- scar formed on a shoot 
each season the age of a particular shoot or portion of a 
shoot may be determined by counting the ring- scars. The 
lateral buds can also be observed in these autumn twigs. 
They occur generally just above the leaf scars and are 
largest near the tip of the shoot. 

Differences Between a Shoot and a Koot.— The 
shoot is distinguished from the root by the absence of a 
protecting root- cap in front of the growing apex, and by 
having an uninterrupted epidermis over its entire surface, 
consisting always at first of a single layer of cells. This 
epidermis persists as a surface covering either throughout 
the hfe of the shoot, or for a long period, being replaced 
only upon older surfaces of the stem by subsequently 
formed protective layers. 

20 



BOTANY. 

Branching. — Branches of a shoot arise from lateral 
buds, which are in all respects like the terminal buds. If, 
for any reason, the terminal bud of the stem is destroyed, 
or its growth arrested, a branch, developing from a lateral 
bud near by, may assume the position and habit of the 
main axis. In many plants the death or arrest of the ter- 
minal bud occurs at regular intervals. In such plants the 
main axis is really a succession of lateral branches, i. e., 
the branching is sympodial. (Ex. Linden.) 

In the lilac two lateral buds standing at the same level 
develop, if the terminal one fails. In this case the shoot 
divides into two equal branches, i. e., the branching is 
dichotomous. 

Ordinarily, however, the terminal bud develops with- 
out interruption. In case it is more vigorous than any of 
the lateral buds, the plant will have a central axis, from 
the sides of which distinctly smaller branches arise. This 
method obtains in the Spruces, Oaks and Poplars and the 
name excurrent is sometimes used to describe it. If the 
lateral buds are almost or quite as strong as the central 
one, the plant seems to be broken up into branches and 
after it has attained its mature form, no one can be pointed 
out as the main axis. This is illustrated in the Elms, 
Maples, etc., and the name deliquescent is sometimes 
apphed to this method of branching. Both the excurrent 
and deliquescent methods may be designated as monopo- 
dial. 

Lateral Buds.— Lateral buds are ordinarily formed 
in the upper angle made by the leaf with the stem. The 
angle is the axil of the leaf and such buds are said to be 
axillary. There are many cases in which buds are not 
found precisely in the axils of the leaves, but slightly to 
one side, or at a greater or less distance above the axil. 

21 



BOTANY. 

Often several buds are found in the axil of a leaf. Such 
buds are said to be accessory. Sometimes buds are 
formed without any relation whatever to the leaf -axil, 
even o^n the leaf itself. They may occur normally but 
more commonly are produced as a result of an injury of 
some sort. Buds of this kind are known as adventitious 
buds. They may arise upon stems, leaves or roots. 

Many buds continue to develop without interruption 
from the time of their formation, but more of them cease 
to grow after reaching a certain stage. Such buds are 
said to be dormant, and they may remain so for a long 
time, and may even be overgrown and completely en- 
closed by the wood of old shoots. This is the reason why 
new shoots often spring in abundance from the trunk of a 
tree when the upper part has been injured. 

Specially Modified Shoots. — The primary shoot 
may grow underground, in which case its stem usually 
takes a horizontal direction and becomes thickened for 
storage of reserve food, while its leaves are so reduced as 
to be scarcely recognizable. Such a shoot is a rhizome, 
or if long and slender, a creeper. When the primary 
stem is short, erect, and crowded with thick leaf bases it 
forms a hulb, as in the hyacinth and onion. If the leaves 
form concentric coatings as in the onion it is a tunicate d 
bulb; otherwise it is a scaly bulb. When the primary 
stem is short and thick and has thin scale leaves upon it, it 
is called a conn, or solid bulb, as in the Cyclamen and 
Indian Turnip. 

SPECIALIZED BRANCHES. 

Dwarf Branches are often developed with the ca- 
pacity for being easily separated from the parent shoot. 
Such short branches are common among cone-bearing 
trees where thej carry the clusters of needle leaves. 

22 



BOTANY. 

After the death of the leaves the branches themselves 
drop off. Similar branches are found upon many deciduous 
trees, for instance the so-called "fruit spurs" of the apple 
tree. 

Flowers are specialized branches with short axis and 
crowded leaves. The flower branches are commonly short 
lived and drop off with the fruit or earlier. 

Leaf -like braoclies replace leaves in functions and 
resemble them in form on some plants. These branches 
are either broad and flattened as in the Smilax of the 
greenhouses, or slender and needle -like, as in the common 
garden asparagus. In the latter plant the leaves are 
minute scales from the axils of which the green Jpaf-like 
branches arise. 

. The cactus plants are speciailly adapted to withstand 
dry weather by the development of the stem into a reser- 
voir of water and the reduction of leaves into spines. The 
common prickly-pear cactus has the stem composed of 
flattened fleshy leaf -like joints; the giant cactus, of fluted 
cylindrical columns; and the melon cactus of a compact 
spherical body capable of withstanding the greatest ex- 
tremes of drought. 

Bulblets are undeveloped buds with thick and fleshy 
leaves. These bulblets are found in the axils of the leaves 
of the Tiger-Lily, and in the common garden onion where 
they replace the flowers. They are easily detached and 
serve for propagation. 

Tubers are underground shoots, the ends of which 
are greatlj^ enlarged, adapting them to the storage of food. 
In the common potato the tuber consists of several termi- 
nal intemodes of an underground shoot, the "eyes" being 
lateral buds in the axils of minute scale leaves. In one 



BOTANY. 

species of Polygonum some of the flower branches are 
modified into tubers. 

Some kinds of tendrils are specialized branches. 
This is the case in the White Bryony. 

Thorns are sometimes modified branches. In the 
Honey-Locust the thorns are branched. 

Leaves may be developed as tendrils or thorns but the 
origin and relation of members will reveal their true na- 
ture. If they are shoots they will usually be found in the 
axil of a leaf; if they are leaves they will often have a bud 
in their axils. Thorns and tendrils which do not arise at 
the nodes of a stem are regarded as shoots. 

Often plants grown in dry regions adapt themselves to 
these conditions by becoming stunted or by developing 
thorny branches instead of leafy branches thus greatly re- 
ducing the amount of surface exposed to the atmosphere 
and providing at the same time protection from ravaging 
animals. In many cases such spiny branches can be made 
to develop into ordinary branches with leaves in the pres- 
ence of favorable water conditions. 




24 



BOTANY. 
OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

(FIRST PAPER.) 

1. What is Botany? Define the different divisions of 
Botany. 

2. Describe a bean seed and tell what each part de- 
velops into when the seed germinates. 

3. Compare the corn seed and its germination with 
the bean seed. 

4. What divisions of the seed plants based upon the 
number of seed-leaves can we make? 

5. Define the terms plant body, members, cell, 
protoplasm, cytoplasm, nucleus, nucleolus, plas- 
tids. 

6. What do you understand by nutritive cells, re- 
productive cells, tissue, parenchyma, meristem? 

7. What is mestome, stereome, collenfthyma, 
sclerenchyma, tracheary tissue, sieve tissue ? 

8. Describe the structure of the root. What is the 
root-cap, epidermis, cortex, stele ? 

9. Describe the root-hairs and give their function. 
Explain fuUy how root-pressure is produced. 

10. How could you ascertain which portion of a young 
root elongates most rapidly? 

11. How do old roots come to resemble stems in 
structure? 

12. How do branches arise on roots? 

13. Explain what is meant by geotropism, hy- 
drotropism. 

14. What are water-roots, air-roots, prop roots? 

15. Classify roots as to form. 

16. Describe a shoot, bud, ring-scar. 

17. What is the difference between a shoot and a 
root? 

18. Describe three methods of branching of shoots. 

19. What is a terminal bud; lateral, axillary, ac- 
cessory, adventitious, dormant bud? 

20. Define a rhizome, creeper, bulb, corm, 
bulblet, tuber. 

21. How can you tell whether tendrils and thorns 
are speciaMzed leaves or shoots? 

25 



ZOOLOGY. 

( FIRST PAPER. ) 

The word Zoon from tlie Greek, meaning an animal, 
suggests that this branch of Biology is the study of the 
animal kingdom. All that has been learned under the cap- 
tion of Physiology applies equally to Zoology. The same 
also is true in treating in the lower forms of plant life in 
Botany, i. e., the unicellular plants. The most primitive 
forms of animal life and those of the vegetable, where they 
both are simply protoplasmic, are practically identical in 
their hfe histories. Some marked differences characterize 
the two, however, as in the power that an anima^has in 
taking its food into its body in a soUd form, selecting the 
nutritive portion, and digesting it, the useless portion be- 
ing rejected; while in a plant it must first be prepared into 
a Uquid condition, before it can be absorbed, or be of any 
value as a food. All animal food is originally supplied by 
the vegetable kingdom; while that of the plant is in turn 
obtained from the' inorganic, or mineral world. 

" In the study of any of the Natural Sciences, and in this 
subject particularly, the g-reatest and most lasting- knowl- 
edge in it cannot be gained by learning a set of facts in the 
abstract. By personal observation, only, can it become a 
part of the student and prove of any real satisfaction. To 
this end it is strong-ly urged that some individual observa- 
tions be made. It is suggested that a small text book on 
Practical Zoology be obtained and used as a guide with this 
study." 

The geographical distribution of animals into localities, 
or areas, is called the fauna of that country. 

Paleontology, or the study of fossil remains, tells us 
much of the early history of organic life on the earth's sur- 
face, many animals having existed which are now extinct. 



Ecology treats of animals in their life relations, the 
effect of their environment upon them, their adaptations to 
their surroundings, etc. 

Systematic classification is one of the objects of scien- 
tific animal study, i. e., the placing of those who have 
marked features in common into the same group. The 
animal kingdom is thus divided into eight branches. Of 
these the Protozoa (primitive animals) forms the first 
branch. 

Metazoa is a term applied to aU animals composed of 
more than one cell, and includes the other seven branches. 

The Branches in ascending order, with examples, are: 

1. Protozoa, Amoeba, Monad, etc. 

2. Porifera, Sponges. 

3. Coelenterata, Hydra, Jelly Fish. 

4. Vermes, Worms. 

6. Echinodermata, Crinoids, Star Fish. 

6. MoUuska, Clams, Snails, Cuttles. 

7. Arthropoda, Crustaceans, Insects. 

8. Vertebrata,' Ascidians, Reptiles, Fishes, Birds, 
Mammals. 

These branches are again divided and subdivided into 
smaller and smaller groups until we get down to the in- 
dividual. For instance an individual Angora cat is placed 
along with fishes, reptiles, birds and mammals in the 
Branch, Vertebrata, because it has in common with 
these animals a back-bone. But it is very different from 
a fish, reptile or bird, so it is put into a sub-group, or 
Class, Mammalia, along with other animals which are 
covered with hair, bear their young aMve and suckle their 
young. Because it is flesh- eating and has it organs es- 
pecially adapted for securing and devouring such food it 
is put in the Order, Carnivora, along with the lion, 



tiger, bear, fox, dog, etc. Again the lions, tigers, cats, 
panthers, etc., are grouped into one Family, the Felidae. 
All cats are included under the Genus, Felis. All house 
cats belong to the Species, Domesticus. All Angora 
cats are grouped under the "Variety, Angorensis. If 
then we wish to classify an Angora cat we must give the 
group and sub-groups to which it belongs as follows; 

1. Branch., Vertebrata. 

2. Class, Mammalia. 

3. Order, Carnivora. 

4. Family, Fehdae. 

5. Genus, Felis. 

6. Species, Felis domesticus. 

7. Variety, Angorensis. 

8. Individual, a single Angora cat. 

In taking up the study of zoology we shall take a 
typical representative of each class for the details of 
structure and compare other forms with this typ^. 

THE AMOEBA. 

This animal has been selected not only because it is a 
type of the Protozoa, but because it is an animal cell in 
its most primitive form and as such is a representative of 
the animal cell, the unit of structure of all animals no mat- 
ter how complex. This primitive animal cell is found in 
the slime and sediment at the bottom of stagnant pools 
and consists of a small mass of a viscid, nearly colorless 
substance called protoplasm. This protoplasm is dif- 
ferentiated to form two parts or regions of the cell, an 
inner denser mass called nucleus, and an outer, clearer, 
inclosing mass called the cytoplasm. The nucleus is 
surrounded by a thin protoplasmic membrane called the 
nuclear membrane. In the nucleus there appear to be 
fine threads or rods which are evidently different from the 



rest of the unclear protoplasm. These are called chro- 
mosomes or cliromatln tlireads. 

The protoplasm, which is the essential substance of 
the cell and hence of the whole animal body, is a sub- 
stance of a very complex chemical and physical constitu- 
tion. Its chemical structure is so complex that no chemist 
has ever been able to analyze it, and the further the at- 
tempts to analyze it are carried the more baflling the sub- 
stance is found to be, and it is probable that it never will 
be analyzed. The most important thing we know about 
the chemical composition of protoplasm is that there are 
always present in it certain complex albuminous sub- 
stances which are never found in inorganic bodies. It is 
on the presence of these albuminous substances that the 
power of performing the processes of hfe depends. 

The physical structure of protoplasm has been much 
studied, but even with the most improved and powerful 
microscopes naturalists are very far from understanding 
the physical constitution of the substance. While the ap- 
pearance of the substance is pretty well agreed upon the 
actual structure indicated by this appearance is not aU 
agreed upon. Protoplasm appears, when highly magnified, 
as a mesh work composed of fine granules suspended in a 
clearer substance, the spaces of the mesh work being com- 
posed of a third stiU clearer substance. Some naturaUsts 
believe that this appearance means that protoplasm is 
composed of a clear viscous substance in which are im- 
bedded many fine granules of a denser substance, and 
numerous large globules of a clearer, more liquid sub- 
stance. Others believe that the fine spots which appear 
to be granules are simply cross sections of very fine 
threads of dense protoplasm which lie coiled and tangled 
in the thinner, clearer protoplasm. Still others believe 



that protoplasm exists as a microscopic foam work; 
that it is a viscous Uquid containing many fine 
globules ( the granule appearing spots ) of a liquid of dif- 
ferent density and numerous larger globules of a liquid of 
still other density. It is a foam in which the bubbles are 
not filled with air, but with hquids of different density. 
This last theory is the one accepted by the majority of 
modern naturalists. In fact, Butschli, an eminent German 
biologist has succeeded in making drops of a substance 
closely resembhng the protoplasmic structure, from drops 
of olive oil. Under certain conditions the olive oil absorbs 
very fine particles of water to such an extent that the 
whole mass consits of numerous microscopic bubbles or 
drops of water surrounded and separated from each other 
by films of the oil, that is, a microscopic foam is produced 
which under a microscope has a structure closely resemb- 
hng that of protoplasm. 

The outhne or shape of the Amoeba is slowly but con- 
stantly changing. The animal may contract to a tiny ball; 
it may become almost star- shaped; it may become elongate 
or flattened; short, blunt, finger-hke projections called 
pseudopods (false feet) extend from the central body mass, 
and these projections are constantly changing, slowly 
pushing out or drawing in. There seems to be no cell 
waU, unless a region of clearer protoplasm ( ectosarc ) 
surrounding the central granular portion (endosarc ) may 
be called by that name. If an amoeba be closely watched 
it may be seen to change its position. Without legs, 
wings, scales or hooks — that is, with no special organs of 
locomotion— the amoeba moves. There are no muscles, 
for muscles are composed of many contractile cells massed 
together, and the amoeba is but one cell. It is a contractile 
ceU; it can do what the muscles of complex animals can do. 



If any part of the body of an amoeba cames in contact 
with some other microseopio animal or plant or a small 
fragment of some larger form, the soft body of the amoeba 
will press against it and soon the particle becomes sunken 
in the protoplasm and entirely enclosed by it. The par- 
ticle thus absorbed soon disappears entirely or in part; it 
is digested. Such food particles as cannot be digested are 
thrust from the body. Without mouth or stomach the 
amoeba eats and digests food. This method of nutrition 
is said to be holozoic. 

If an amoeba is left too long in a drop of water under 
a cover glass without access of air, it dies. It absorbs 
oxygen from the water through any part of the surface of 
its body and gives off from any part carbon -dioxide gas. 
When the oxygen in the water is all absorbed it will die of 
suffocation just as surely as a fish in too small a quantitj^ 
of water will die. Without lungs or gills or other special 
organs of respiration the amoeba breathes. 

If an amoeba be examined intently for some time a 
round clear space about as large as the nucleus will be 
seen to appear in the ectosarc and disappear at quite regu- 
lar intervals. This is called the contractile vacuole 
and is thought to be simply a cavity filled with water. By 
its contractions it serves to keep up a sort of circulation 
which helps to distribute absorbed oxygen and digested 
food throughout the protoplasmic mass, or perhaps to 
eject waste matter from the body. In this capacity it may 
be considered as a very simple form of kidney. 

If, in moving about, the amoeba comes in contact with 
a sand grain, or other foreign particle not suitable for food, 
it slowly recoils and moves to one side of the particle. It 
has received a mechanical stimulus and has responded. It 
wiU also respond to other mechanical stimuli, chemical 

6 



stimuli, or changes of temperature, just as a fish or frog 
will respond to a touch of the hand. Without a nervous 
system, the amoeba shows irritabiUty, which is the simplest 
form of sensation. 

If food is abundant the amoeba grows rapidly, until it 
reaches a certain size, which seems to be a fixed hmit for 
certain species of amoebas. No amoeba becomes large. 
As soon as the limit in size is reached it becomes quiescent 
for a while and then begins to divide itself into two equal 
parts. The nucleus divides first, forming two daughter 
nuclei. These move apart and the cytoplasm becomes con- 
structed and finally divided, so as to produce two complete 
amoebae hke the parent, except that they are onlv half as 
large. Each of the young amoebae now proceeds to move 
about in search of food, to eat, to grow and divide, as the 
parent did before it. This is reproduction by binary 
fission. 

When conditions begin to grow .unfavorable to the 
activity of the amoeba, as, for instance, the pond dries up 
or cold weather comes on, the amoeba contracts to a spher- 
ical form and secretes about itself a thick, horny wall, im- 
pervious to water, and in this state (the encysted state) 
can survive great extremes of cold or drouth, and may be 
transported by the wind. Under other conditions, after 
the process of fission has proceeded for a certain length of 
time and a great many individuals have been produced, 
two amoebae may unite to form one. A conjugation of this 
kind has been observed in the amoeba, but has been more 
thoroughly studied in other forms. 

HAEMATOCOCCUS. 

Rain-water which collects in puddles is frequently 
found to have a green color; this color is due to the pres- 
ence of various orjjgaiiisms— plants or animals- f>n© of the 



commonest of wMch is Haematococcus (or as it is 
sometimes called, Protococcus. ) Like Amoeba, Hae- 
matococcus is so small as to require a Mgli power for its 
examination. Magnified three or four hundred diameters 
it has the appearance of an ovoidal body, somewhat pointed 
at one end, and of a bright green color, more or less flecked 
with equally bright red. Like Amoeba, it is in constant 
movement, but the character of the movement is very dif- 
ferent in the two cases. Haematococcus swims by means 
of two excessively dehcate, colorless protoplasmic threads 
projecting from the pointed end of the body. These 
threads are about half as long again as the animalcule and 
and are called flagella, on account of their lash-like char- 
acter. The animalcule moves pointed end formost, that is, 
the flagella are in front of it as it swims, instead of behind 
it. Moreover, it rotates on its longer axis as it swims. 

The green color of the body is due to the presence of a 
special pigment called cliloropliyll, the same substance 
found in green leaves. The red color is due to the presence 
of a coloring matter closely alhed in its properties to 
chlorophyll and called haematoclirome. At first sight 
the chlorophyll appears to be evenly distributed over the 
whole body, but accurate examination under a high power 
shows it to be lodged in a variable number of irregular 
structures called chroniatopliores, which together form 
a layer immediately beneath the surface. Each chromato- 
phore consists of a protoplasmic substance impregnated 
with chlorophyll. 

If the coloring matter be dissolved out of the body of 
the animalcule by means of alcohol, a nucleus may be 
made out, hke the nucleus of Amoeba. Other bodies 
which might easily be mistaken for nuclei are also visible 
in the hving organism. These are small ovoidal struct- 

8 



ures with clearly defined outlines occurring in varying 
numbers in the chromatophores. Iodine stains these 
bodies a dark blue showing that they are composed of 
starch, or rather they are composed of a proteid substance 
covered with a layer of starch. These bodies are called 
pyrenoids. 

Careful examination shows that surrounding the body 
of the animalcule there is an extremely thin, globular 
shell composed of some colorless, transparent materialj 
and separated from the body by a space containing water. 
Delicate, radiating strands of protoplasm connect this 
sheU to the body. It is perforated by two extremely 
minute apertures for the passage of the flagella. This 
shell resembles the cell wall of an encysted amoeba%but is 
composed of a substance of entirely different chemical 
composition. The cyst of Amoeba is composed of a ni- 
trogenous, horny material, while this ceU waUof Haemato- 
coccus is composed of a carbohydrate called cellulose, 
allied in composition to starch and sugar. Many vegetable 
substances, such as cotton, consist of cellulose, -and wood 
is a modification of the same compound. 

Under certain conditions Haematococcus loses its 
flagella and becomes covered with a thick wall or cyst of 
cellulose. 

Haematococcus has no pseudopodia and therefore can- 
not take in solid food after the manner of Amoeba. More- 
over, even in its active condition, it is usually surrounded 
by an imperforate cell- wall, which of course precludes all 
possibility of ingesting food particles. It has never been 
seen to feed in the ordinary sense of the word. Neverthe- 
less it must take in food in some way or other or it could 
not live. The rain-water in which it hves is never pure 
water, but contains certain mineral salts in solution, 

9 



ZOOLOGY. 

especially nitrates, ammonia salts and often sodium chlo- 
ride. These salts diffuse through the body wall into the 
water of organization of the animalcule. This method of 
nutrition is said to be holophytic. 

If water containing a large quantity of Haematococcus 
is exposed to sunlight, minute bubbles of oxygen appear 
in it. Accurate chemical tests have shown that this 
oxygen is produced by the decomposition of the carbon 
dioxide contained in solution in the rain water. The car- 
bon from the carbon- dioxide is retained by the organism 
and built up into some simple form of carbohydrate which 
goes through compHcated chemical changes until finally 
living protoplasm is produced. 

Now to express this matter of taking food in a few 
words: Amoeba can only make protoplasm out of pro- 
teids already formed by some other organism. Haemato- 
coccus can form it out of simple hquid and gaseous inor- 
ganic materials. These two methods of nutrition (holozoic 
and holophytic) are respectively characteristic of the two 
great groups of living things. Animals require soHd food 
containing ready-made proteids, and cannot build up 
their protoplasm out of simpler compounds. Green plants 
take only hquid and gaseous food, and build up their pro- 
toplasm out of carbon dioxide, water and mineral salts. It 
is important to note that only when chlorophyll is present 
is the latter method of nutrition possible and furthermore 
sunlight is necessary for the process. 

The Amoeba, and animals in general, require and de- 
rive their energy from the breaking down of the complex 
chemical compounds (proteids) which they take in as food. 
Haematococcus in common with other organisms contain- 
ing chlorophyll (plants in general) cannot get its energy 
from the simple chemical compounds which serve as its 

10 



food but must receive energy in the form of light or ra- 
diant energy directly from the sun. 

HETEROMITA. 

This is a tiny colorless organism sometimes found in 
infusions of organic matter. It is commonly called ' 'Spring - 
ing Monad" because of its peculiar, jerky motion. It is 
pear-shaped and has two flagella, one at the anterior tip 
and one underneath, just back of the tip. It feeds neither 
by taking sohd proteid food into the interior (holozoic nu- 
trition ) nor by decomposing carbon dioxide and combining 
the carbon with water and mineral salts (holophytic 
nutrition), but by absorbing decomposing proteids and 
other nutriment substances in the hquid form. This 
method of nutrition is called saprophytic. 

EUGLENA. 

This organism is found in stagnant water and imparts 
to it a uniform green color. Its body is spindle-shaped, 
with a flagellum at one end. Besides its rapid swimming 
movements it frequently performs slow movements of 
contraction and expansion, something hke those of a short 
worm. So characteristic are these movements of the 
animal that the term euglenoid is applied to them. 

The flagellum arises from the base of a little conical 
cavity and by its continual movement gives rise to a sort 
of whirlpool which sweeps minute, solid food particles 
down into the cavity and into the soft internal protoplasm. 
A green color (chlorophyll) tinges all the central part of 
the body. A few grains of paraniylum, a carbohydrate 
very closely resembling starch may be seen near the 
center. Water containing Euglena gives off bubbles of 
oxygen in the sunlight. Its nutrition is therefore partly 
holophytic and partly holozoic. 



These four organisms, Amoeba, Haematococcus, 
Heteromita and Euglena have been described to show how 
difficult it is to divide the lower forms of life into the two 
distinct groups of plants and animals. For instance Prof. 
Huxley considers Haematococcus as a plant and expresses 
doubts about Euglena; Mr. Saville Kent ranks Haemato- 
coccus as a plant and Euglena as an animal; Prof. Sachs 
places both in the vegetable kingdom; while Lankester 
and Biitschh group them both among animals. Heteromita 
is generally regarded as an animal although the Bacteria 
(which have all the properties in common with Heteromita 
except the presence of a ceU wall of cellulose and the 
absence of a contractile vacuole) are regarded as plants. 
If we attempt to define a plant as an organism whose 
protoplasm secrets cellulose and whose nutrition is holo- 
phytic or saprophytic in character, we find that there are 
organisms which partake partly of the plant and partly of 
the animal characteristics. Even such undoubted animals 
as the Sea Squirts are surrounded by a cellulose test. 
Euglena has both holophytic and holozoic nutrition. 
Heteromita has saprophytic nutrition but no cellulose wall. 
Bacteria have saprophytic nutrition and a cellulose wall. 
So we cannot draw any sharp line and place all animals on 
one side of it and all plants on the other side. 

OTHER PROTOZOANS. 

Foraminifera (foramen, a hole; ferro, to carry).— 
Related to the amoeba are the beautiful marine Globiger- 
inae and Radiolaria. Their simple one -celled body is sur- 
roimded by a microscopic shell which among the Globi- 
gerinae is generally made of hme (calcuim carbonate ), in 
the Radiolaria of silica. These minute shells present a 
great variety of shape and pattern, many being of most 
exquisite symmetry and beauty. The shells are usually 

ol2 



^OOI<OQY. 

perforated by many small holes, through which project 
long, delicate protoplasmic threads which interlace when 
they touch each other, thus forming a sort of protoplasmic 
network outside of the shell. Most of the myriads of 
simplest animals which swarm in the surface waters of the 
ocean belong to these two orders. Large areas of the 
bottom of the Atlantic ocean are covered with a shmy, 
gray mud, often of great thickness, which is called 
"globigerina-ooze," because it is made up chiefly of the 
microscopic shells of these animals. The chalk beds of 
England, Spain, France and Greece consist chiefly of the 
remains of Globigerinae which existed in the oceans of 
earher geologic times. 

Likewise the silicious shells of the Radiolariaift have 
formed extensive deposits. The kind of rock called Tri- 
poli, found in Sicily, and the Barbados earth from the 
island of Barbados, both of which are used as pohshing 
powder, are composed almost exclusively of the siliceous 
shells of ancient and long extinct Radiolaria. 

Infusoria. — This class is so called because its mem- 
bers are found in infusions of vegetable or animal matter. 
If some hay be steeped in water and the liquid therefrom 
be cooled and some stagnant water added. Infusoria will 
appear shortly in great numbers. They differ from the 
amoeba in having a definite shape and in being provided 
with hair-like or hooked appendages for locomotion in- 
stead of pseudopodia. Every stagnant pond, every water- 
ing trough or rain barrel in which a green, organic growth 
is allowed to form, will furnish thousands of these tiny 
animals. 

Paramoecium is a slipper- shaped animalcule with 
a groove along one edge leading into a small gullet. There 
are no flagella but the I)ody is covered with short hair-hke 

13 



protoplasmic cilia, which, by their vibration, enable the 
animal to move rapidly through the water. Along the 
groove leading to the gullet the cilia act in such a way as 
to direct food particles suspended in the water into the 
gullet where they are taken up by the surrounding proto- 
plasm. 

Vorticella, or the Bell Animalcule, is bell -shaped in 
form and provided with a contractile supporting stalk by 
means of which the animal can retract into a compact 
form when disturbed. The stalk forms the handle to the 
bell, the opposite end is flattened and encircled by a ciU- 
ated groove which leads into a gullet at one edge similar 
to that of Paramoecium. 

COLONIAL PROTOZOA. 

When an ordinary protozoan multiplies by fission, the 
halves of the one -celled body separate wholly from each 
other, move apart and pursue their lives independently. 
Suppose the two halves did not separate but clung together 
and then each divided again making a group of four and 
then the division continued until a group of 16 or 32 cells 
was formed, all clinging together, but each ceU a complete 
animal capable of Hving independently Uke other proto- 
zoans. If this were to happen we would have a colony of 
protozoans. Now there is a group of organisms called the 
Volvocinae having exactly this structure. They are re- 
garded as plants by the botanists because they contain 
chlorophyll and a cellulose membrane and exhibit meta- 
bohsm characteristic of plants. The zoologists consider 
them to be animals belonging to the order Flagellata of 
the Protozoa. For the sake of showing the advancing 
complexity as we rise in the scale of life w© will also con- 
sider them under this head. 

14 



ZOOltOOY, 

Gonium.— The simplest of the colonial forms is 
Gonium, consisting of sixteen cells, all exactly alike, 
each with two flagella and holding together to form a tiny 
flat plate -hke colony. Each cell of the colony breathes 
and eats for itself entirely independently of the others. 
When ready to multiply they separate from each other 
and each cell gives rise by fission to a new colony of six- 
teen cells. 

Pandorina. — In Pandorina there are also sixteen 
ceUs, but arranged to form a spherical instead of a plate - 
hke colony. They are more firmly bound together by a 
jelly-hke mass than in Gonium. Each cell has two flagella 
and breathes and takes food for itself. When ready to 
multiply, each cell divides repeatedly until sixteen daugh- 
ter cells are formed, or, in other words, sixteen new 
colonies are formed within the old. The jelly-hke sub- 
stance binding them together then dissolves and sets free 
the daughter colonies which swim apart, and grow to the 
size of the parent colony. After several generations of 
this kind of multiphcation a different kind of reproduction 
takes place. There comes a time when the cells of the 
mother colony divide into eight daughter cells instead of 
sixteen. These eight daughter cells resulting from the 
repeated division of one of the original cells separate and 
swim about in the water independently hke ordinary 
protozoans. If one of these cells comes near a similar free 
swimming cell of another colony the two cells conjugate 
— that is, fuse to form a single cell. This loses its flageUa 
and develops about itself a tough membrane of cellulose 
and passes into what is called the "resting stage." After 
remaining dormant for a time, during which it may be 
dried up or frozen without injury, it breaks open the en- 
closing wall, when suita-ble conditions are again present. 

16 



and emerges as a large, free swimming cell, whicli soon 
divides into sixteen daughter cells wMch constitute a new 

colony. 

Eudorina.— Very similar to Pandorina is a colonial 
protozoan called Eudorina. Like Pandorina, it consists of 
sixteen or thirty -two cells united into a spherical jelly-like 
mass. It produces new colonies by simple fission, but at 
times it reproduces by a more comphcated process. Some 
of the cells divide into sixteen or thirty -two minute elon- 
gated cells, each provided with two flagella. These small 
cells escape from the envelope of the parent cell remain- 
ing for some time united in small bundles. Other cells of 
the colony do not divide but increase shghtly in size and 
become spherical. When a bundle of the small cells comes 
into contact with some of these large spherical cells, the 
bundle breaks up and conjugation takes place between the 
small flagellated free-swimming cells and the large non- 
flagellate spherical cells. Each new cell formed by the 
fusion of one of the smaU cells and one of the large cells 
develops a cellulose wall and assumes a resting stage. 
After a time a new colony arises from each of these rest- 
ing spores. 

Volvox.— Still more complex than Eudorina is Volvox. 
This consists of several thousand flagellated cells arranged 
in a single layer about the hollow center of a sphere. The 
flagella all project out into the water and by their con- 
tinual lashing movements the ball is given a rotary motion. 
The cells are held together by a jelly -Mke intercellular sub- 
stance and are connected to each other by fine protoplas- 
mic threads which extend from the body protoplasm of 
one cell to the cells surrounding it. When the colony is 
full grown and ready to reproduce itself certain cells of 
the colony increase enormously in size and have reserve 



ZOOI/OQY- 

food itored in them, and may be called the egg cells of the 
colony. These may divide by simple jlssion into daughter 
colonies which escape from the mother colony and become 
independent. Or, certain cells of the colony divide into 
bundles of very small, slender cells as in Eudorina, each 
provided with flagella. The remaining cells (those which 
do not become egg cells or divide into the minute flagel- 
late cells) remain unchanged for a while and finally die. 
They take no part in reproducing the colony unless it be 
to supply food material for the egg cells. One of the 
minute free -swimming cells unites with one of the enor- 
mous egg cells to form a resting spore which eventually 
develops into a new colony. 

In these four colonial protozoans we see a steadily in- 
creasing complexity from the very simple, almost inde- 
pendent existence of the component cells of Gonium to 
the interdependent existence of the cells of Volvox. Vol- 
vox is on the dividing line between the Protozoa and the 
Metazoa. While in structure it resembles the simplier 
colonial forms in which the cells are almost entirely in- 
dependent of each other, there is a real interdependence 
between its thousands of cells. The function of reproduc- 
tion rests with a few particular cells, and for the perpetua- 
tion of the species there is demanded a co-operation of two 
distinct kinds of reproductive cells. The great majority of 
cells take no part in reproduction. They can perform all 
the other hfe processes; they move the colony by lashing 
the water with their flagella; they take in food and assimi- 
late it; they can feel. All the cells of the great colony, too, 
are intimately connected by means of protoplasmic 
strands. The protoplasm of one cell can mingle with that 
of another cell, food can go from cell to cell. This is very 
similar to the conditions eidsting in the Metazoa which 
will be taken up in the next paper. 

17 



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18 



OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

(FIRST PAPER.) 

1. Define the terms Zoology, fauna, protozoa, 
luetazoa. 

2. What is the scientific method of naming or classify- 
ing an animal? 

3. Describe the substance protoplasm. 

4. Describe the amoeba. What properties has it that 
more complex animals have? 

5. How does the amoeba reproduce itself? 

6. Give the principal characteristics of Haematococ- 
cus. Why may it be considered as a plant? 

7. Give reasons for considering Euglena as an animal. 
Also give reasons why it may be regarded as a plant. 

8. Define the terms chromosome, pyrenoid, ec- 
tosarc, cellulose, cytoplasm. 

9. Define the terms cilium, flagellum, holozoic, 
holophytic, saprophytic. 

10. Give a brief description of Globlgerina. 

11. What is an Infusorian? Describe Paramoe- 
cium; Vorticella. 

12. What do you understand by the term *' colonial 
protozoan?" 

13. Describe Gonium. 

14. In what respects is Pandorina more complex than 
Gonium? 

15. In what respects is Eudorina more complex than 
Pandorina? 

16. Why must Volvox be considered as on the divid- 
ing line between the Protozoans and the Metazoans? 

17. What Protozoans may be considered as on the 
dividing Hue between plants and animals. 

18. Try to make a definition of the term animal; 
plant. 

19 



PHYSICS. 

(FIRST PAPER.) 

"Natural Philosophy'', in ancient times, was studied in 
onnection with the inind under the general name of Phil- 
sophy. Much speculation existed as to the structure of 
tie universe, and various attempts were made to explain it. 
►f course the methods employed were crude and unscien- 
fic because of ignorance of most of the laws of natural 
henomena. Plato (B. C. 429) conceived the material 
lovld or universe to be made up of five elements, — earth, 
ir, v/ater, fire and ether. Aristotle (B. C 384) was prob- 
bly the first philosopher to pursue the subject exogri- 
lentally, but his efforts in this way were quite limited, 
'o Archimedes (B. C. 287) must be given the credit of 
itroducing the true method of scientific observation. His 
iscoveries in mechanics and hydrostatics, the principles 
if which are so invaluable to-day are abundant evidence of 
lis research. His successors, the philosophers of the 
Alexandrian school, made many contributions to physical 
cience, but after the burning of the famous library at 
Llexandria (A. D. 642), science made no progress worthy of 
aention until the time of Galileo (A. D. 1564). The dis- 
overies of this distinguished philosopher and his method 
if experimental investigation gave a wonderful interest 
,nd importance to the subject of physics which has been 
ontinued in the same manner by a long succession of dis- 
inguished philosophers. 

Physics, (Greek — phusis — "nature"). 

Physics, formerly called Natural Philosophy, (philos, 
over; sophia, wisdom), is that branch of science which 
liscusses the phenomena of matter as recognized by any of 



PHYSICS. 

the five senses. Chemistry, which was formerly included 
in Physics, is now treated as a separate science. 

Matter is a general name apphed to everything that 
occupies space or "takes up room", and acts on our senses. 

A Body is a portion of matter existing in space and is 
composed of Molecules. (Molecule, from mola, signifies a 
httle mass). 

Molecules are in turn subdivided into Atoms, (Greek, 
a, net; temnein, to cut), which are indivisible by any 
mechanical means. (See Chemistry). A molecule, then, 
is the smallest particle of matter that can exist in a free 
state. 

The Properties of matter are the qualities in it which 
are capable of exciting sensations. They are usually 
classed as General and Special. 

The General Properties of matter are those which 
pertain to all its forms. They are Magnitude, Impenetra- 
bihty, Divisibihty, Inertia, Indestructibihty, Compressi- 
bihty. Extension, Porosity, and Attraction. 

By Magnitude we mean the property of occupying 
space. No portion of matter can be so small as not to 
occupy a portion of space. 

Impenetrability signifies that property of matter 
which prevents two bodies from occupying the same space 
at the same time. Illustration: A nail driven into a board 
does not penetrate the board, but separates the molecules. 

Divisibility signifies that property of matter which 
renders it separable by mechanical means into portions 
appreciable by our senses. 

Inertia (Latin, "iners", powerless,) signifies lack of 
power in a body to change its state. The change, for 
instance, in a body from rest to motion requires the exer- 
cise of an extraneous force. 



PHYvSICS. 

Indestructibility is a term applied to matter which 
defines itself. No human power can create, and no human 
power can destroy matter. This it the attribute of God 
alone, who called matter into existence from nothing. 
Man can change its form, but its elements are beyond his 
control. Illustration: A piece of coal may be converted 
into gas, and certain by-products. The gas may be burned, 
but the hydrogen of which it was chiefly composed, in 
burning, unites with elements of the atmosphere and con- 
tinues existence in a new form. 

Compressibility is that property which permits 
diminution of bulk. 

Extension has the same meaning in Physics as in 
Mathematics. Its elements are length, breadth and l5hick- 
ness — ^terms which need no definition. 

Porosity is that property of bodies by which 

their atoms are supposed to be separated. The form 

of the ultimate elements of a body, in its atoms, is 

supposed to be globular, and as no two or more globes, or 

cells, can be closely united without change in form, a vacant 

space called a pore is theoretically said to exist between 

them. Illustration: — Fill a glass evenly full of the finest 

shot obtainable. You can then pour in a quantity of water 

equal to about one -third of the capacity of the glass before 

the water will overflow. 

Attraction is that property universally present in the 
particles of matter which gives them the tendency to ap- 
proach each other. Its opposite quahty is that which we 
call Repulsion, which tends to act in separating particles 
of unhke character. These two qualities will be further 
elucidated under the topic Magnetism. 

DYNAMICS. 

Dynamics, (Greek, — duuamis, — power.) 

Dynamics is that branch of Physics which treats of 
molecular and molar forces. 



PHYSICS. 

"Labor is life; 'tis the still water faileth," is the poetic 
declaration of an universal law governing all matter. Mat- 
ter changes its form and place constantly. Some of the 
changes are visible to our senses; others we know from 
their results which have occurred, but we cannot tell when 
or how. The small seed which we may plant in the earth 
will decay and vanish from our sight, but in its dying it 
gives birth to the stately tree, or the green plant with its 
crown of beautiful flowers. The waters of our mighty river 
we may sometimes see congealed into an apparently solid 
mass; we may see rising from it the morning mist, disap- 
pearing under the influence of the sun's rays, and forming 
the dark storm clouds laden with its vapor, distilling from 
heaven's alembic the gentle rain, and we rarely think that 
these changes are the result of the activity of certain agents 
which govern aU matter. We need not search for miracles, 
for miracles are about us upon every side. 

These agencies, which either produce or oppose motion 
in matter, we generahze under the name of Force. The 
capability in matter of undergoing change of place we call 
Mobility. 

All these forces in nature may be classed under the 
general titles of Molecular, (Internal) Forces, Heat, Light, 
Electricity, Attraction of Gravitation, Attractive and Re- 
pulsive Forces of Magnetism and Vital Force existing only 
in hving animals and plants. "We know nothing of these 
forces; we know only their phenomena. 

Molecular forces, also called Internal forces, are those 
which act upon the molecules, or particles, of bodies when 
in juxtaposition, or at what we may call insensible distances. 
Molecular forces are classifled under the two general titles 
of Attraction, which tends to cause particles to unite, and 
Repulsion, which tends to cause separation. 



PHYSICS. 

Elasticity is that quality of matter which causes a body 
to resume its original shape, after having been changed in 
form by an external force, when that force is removed. All 
bodies possess this quahty, but in varying degrees. 

Upon the relative strength of the forces of Attraction 
and Repulsion depends the condition which bodies assume 
as Solids, Liquids or Gases. 

A Solid body is one in which the attractive force is the 
stronger, causing the body to retain its form under ordinary 
conditions. 

In a Liquid body the forces of attraction and repulsion 
are so nearly equal as to cause the particles to mo^e freely, 
and to assume the form of any containing vessel. 

A Gas, or Aeriform body, is one in which the repulsive 
force is the greater, causing the particles to separate when 
pressure is removed. 

The application of heat or cold will cause the greater 
number of bodies to change their forms. By the application 
of intense cold and pressure, air has been converted into a 
liquid form. By this method also Hydrogen, the lightest 
known gas, has been demonstrated to be a quasi metal of a 
silvery luster, i. e., a substance resembling a metal in some 
respects. 

Fluid is a term used to designate bodies whose particles 
move easily upon each other, and is equally applicable to 
either liquids or gases. 

MOLECULAB FORCES. 

The attraction between molecules is usually classed 
under four heads: Adhesion, the force which unites atoms 
of unhke kind into a mass; Cohesion, which unites those 
of the same kind; Capillary, which exists between a hquid 



PHYSICS. 

and the surface of pores or tubes; and Chemical Affinity, 
that which causes unhke substances to combine and form 
new compounds. 

What are sometimes called the specific properties of 
bodies, viz: Malleabihty, Ductility, Elasticity, FlexibiUty, 
Pliability, Tenacity, Hardness and Brittleness are modifi- 
cations of the attractive force acting at insensible distances 
upon atoms. 

Malleability is that quahty in a body which enables 
us to roll or hammer it into sheets. Tinfoil, or a sheet of 
zinc, are familiar examples. 

Ductility permits the body to be drawn into wire. 

Flexibility and Pliability are qualities in a body which 
admit of more or less motion without breaking. Example : 
a sheet of tin. 

Tenacity is the property in a body upon which its 
Ductility depends. 

Hardness is the property which enables a body to 
resist the action of a force tending to separate its particles, 
while Brittleness, a characteristic of most hard bodies, per- 
mits them to be easily broken. 

GRAVITATION. 

Gravitation is that form of attraction which causes 
all bodies at all distances to tend to approach each other. 
The "great law" of gravitation is that "bodies attract each 
other or different bodies with a force in direct proportion 
to their masses, and in inverse proportion to their dis- 
tances." Thus, if a body which we will call "a" weighs five 
pounds, and a second body, "b," weighing ten pounds, 
exert their attractive force upon each other, the force of 
"b" will be twice as great as that of "a," and will cause **a" 
to move four times as far as "a" moves "b" in the same 
time. 



PHYSICS. 

Terrestrial Gravitation is the force exerted by the 
earth upon all bodies on or near its surface, causing them 
to move, or tend to move, toward the center of the earth 
in a straight line. This force is greatest upon the surface 
of the earth, decreases downward directly as the distance 
from the center decreases, and upward as the square of the 
distance from the center increases. 

The facts of universal gravitation were established by 
Newton from 1684 to 1688. Summed up in as few words as 
possible the following may be stated as recognized estab- 
hshed facts: 

1. Gravitation belongs not only to masses of matter 
but also to every particle of which the masses are cofciposed. 

2. Gravitation acts instantaneously. 

3. Gravitation is not modified by the nature of the 
matter. 

4. Gravitation is not modified by the interposition of 
substances. 

6. Gravitation is equal. 

WEIGHT. 

Weight is the measure of the attractive force of the 
earth when it is resisted by another force. It is, in other 
terms, the quantity of matter contained in a body as indi- 
cated by a known standard in a balance. Under the law of 
terrestrial gravitation, included in the preceding para- 
graph, the weight of a body upon the surface of the earth 
will be greatest at those places — the poles — where it is 
nearest the center. As it descends toward the center it 
loses weight, until at the center it is nothing, because the 
attractive force is exerted equally in all directions. Above 
the earth's surface weight decreases as the square of the 
distance from the center of the earth increases. For ex- 



PHYSICS. 

ample, a body, which, at the earth's surface weighs 1,000 
lb., 2,000 miles above the surface of the earth would weigh 
444^ lb. 



1000 : W:: 6000^ : 40002. W = LC.o =444|- 



40 00^X10 00 
60002 

This is according to the law of gravitation as given in a 
previous paragraph. 

Practical Questions : 

1. How much would a body weighing 1,000 lb. at the 
surface of the earth weigh 4,000 miles above the earth's 
surface? 

2. In which place will a body weigh most, at the sea 
level, in a valley or in a deep well? 

3. Suppose the earth to be solid. How far below the 
surface of the earth would a 50-lb. ball weigh only 10 lbs? 
Solution: — The weight of the ball is to be reduced four- 
fifths; it must then be carried four -fifths of the way to the 
center. Ans. : 4000 milesXi=3200 miles. 

4. At a height of 2,000 miles above the surface of the 
earth what would be the difference in the weight of a man 
weighing 200 lb. and a boy weighing 125 lb.? 

5. How far above the earth's surface must 2,500 lb. be 
placed to weigh 1,000 pounds? 

Systems of Weights and Measures are founded upon the 
laws of gravitation, the standard betug the pendulum in the 
English system, because it is governed by fixed immutable 
law. The Metric, or French, system is based upon the 
measurement of an arc of the earth's surface, equally un- 
changeable. 

THE PENDULUM. 

A Pendulum is a heavy body so suspended from a 
fixed point by a thread, wire, etc., that it may freely move 
back and forth in a small arc; these alternate movements 
are called the oscillations or vibrations of the pendulum. 

8 



PHYSICS. 

jjlWS of the pendulum. 

I. The time of vibration of a pendulum varies as the 
square root of its length, i. e., the length of a pendulum 
modifies the time of its vibration. It is for this reason that 
we shorten the pendulum rod if a clock loses time, and vice 
versa. 

II. The time of a vibration of a pendulum through arcs 
of different lengths is nearly the same, unless their differ- 
ence be very great. 

in. The time of vibration varies as attraction of gravity 
varies; hence, the vibration of the same pendulum is slower 
at the equator than at the poles. 

The pendulum is used chiefly for the measurement of 
time. In order that a pendulum may beat seconds cor- 
rectly at different places between the equator and the poles 
it must be gradually lengthened. The length of a second 
pendulum at the sea level at the equator is about 39 inches; 
at the poles it is about 39.2 inches. 

SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 

The weight of every body is either absolute or specific, 
i. e., relative or comparative. The absolute weight is that 
of the mass, without reference to the volume. The specific 
weight or gravity is the weight of a given volume, or bulk, 
compared with that of some other body having the same 
bulk or volume taken as the standard of comparison. A 
cubic foot of distilled water is the standard for solids and 
liquids. To find the specific gravity, divide the weight of 
any bulk of the substance by the weight of an equal bulk of 
water. If the solid is heavier than water, obtain its 
weight in air and also in water. Divide the weight in air 
by the loss in water; the quotient will be the specific gravity. 
If the body is lighter than water, (1) attach to it a 
known weight sufficient to cause it to sink; (2) obtain loss 

9 



PHYSICS. 

of weight as before ; (3) obtain loss in water of the attached 
weight, subtract this loss from the combined loss. The re- 
mainder will be the weight of a bulk of water equaling that 
of the lighter body. Divide the weight in air of the Hghter 

r 

body by this remainder. The quotient will be the specific 
gravity. 

To Find the Specific Gravity of a Liquid. Weigh 
the same solid in both the Uquid and in water. Divide the 
loss of weight in the given liquid by the loss of weight in 
air; the quotient will be the specific gravity. 

To Find the Specific Gravity of a Gas. Divide 
the weight of any volume of the gas by the weight of the 
the same volume -of Hydrogen; the quotient will be the 
specific gravity. 

To Find the Weight of a Cubic Foot of Any 
Substance. Multiply the weight of a cubic foot of water 
(1,000 ounces) by the specific gravity of the substance. 

To Find the Bulk of a Body when the Weight 
is Known, as, for instance, the number of cubic feet in a 
ton of iron. Divide the weight in ounces by the specific 
gravity, decimal point being omitted. The quotient will be 
the bulk. 

It is by these laws of specific gravity that the weight 
of huge masses, as the Pyramids of Egypt, may be calcu- 
lated. This principle also enables us to detect adulterations 
of metals, as each metal has a definite specific gravity. 

The Hydrometer. — Instruments called hydrometers 
are made for the convenient determination of densities. 
The most common form of hydrometer indicates the specific 
gravity of the liquid by the depth to which it sinks in the 
liquid. It consists of a hollow glass tube with a small bulb 
at one end which contains shot or mercury. This weight 
keeps the instrument in an upright position when placed in 

10 



PHYSICS. 

the liquid whose density is to be found. The depth to which 
it sinks in the liquid is measured by a scale on the hollow 
tube. A point usually marked zero indicates the depth to 
which the hydrometer sinks in pure water. The graduation 
is upward if the instrument is for liquids Hghter than water 
and downward for those that are heavier than water. 
Practical Questions : 

1. A barge sinks to % of its depth when unloaded and 
to % its depth when loaded. If the barge weighs 3 tons 
what is the weight of the cargo? 

2. A piece of iron weighs 16 grams in air and 10 grams 
in water. Find its volume and specific gravity. 

3. What is the specific gravity of cork if four*cubic 
feet weigh 60 lb.? 

4. Iron is many times heavier than water. Why does 
an iron steamship float? 

CENTER OF GRAVITY. 

The center of gravity of a body is the point on which 
the body will balance. The center of magnitude, however, 
is the center of the mass. In all bodies of uniform density 
and shape these centers wiU coincide. Suppose it is neces- 
sary to find the center of gravity of an irregularly shaped 
body, as a stone or a chair. Let it be suspended so as to 
move freely and from the point of suspension drop a plumb 
line and mark its direction. It is evident that the center of 
mass or gravity will lie in this line. From a second point, 
but not already in the line determined, again suspend the 
body. The center of mass will he in this hne also. The 
center can not lie in both lines; it must be at their point of 
intersection. In some bodies the center of mass does not 
lie in the matter of which the body is composed but outside 
of it altogether. 

11 



PHYSICS. 

Equilibrium is a term signifying the balancing of 
opposite forces. The equilibrium of a body depends upon 
the position of its center of gravity. A body may have 
three states of equihbrium, viz: stable, unstable and indif- 
ferent (sometimes called neutral.) A body is in stable 
equihbrium when its center of gravity is below its point of 
support, and the hne of direction is vertical. For this 
reason the pyramidal form is the most secure. A body is 
in unstable equihbrium when its center of gravity is above 
its point of support, or the Hne of direction falls without 
the base. A body supported on its center of gravity is said 
to be in indifferent equihbrium, for in that case it will remain 
at rest in any position and can be easily moved from it. 

The use of the plumb hne is based upon the theory that 
it will invariably take a perpendicular direction toward the 
center of the earth, being influenced by gravity alone. But 
actual measurement with fine instruments demonstrates the 
fact, that the attractive force of the mass beside which it 
is suspended draws it shghtly from the true vertical position 
toward the object whose vertical position it is supposed to 
direct. 

Practical Questions: 

1. Why is a load of stone more stable than a load of 

hay? 

2. Why does a person stand less firmly when his feet 
are parallel and close together than when they are more 
widely separated? 

3. Why do we bend away irom a pail of water when 
carrying it? 

4. Why is a pyramid a very stable structure? 

5. It is very difiSLcult to balance a lead pencil on the 
finger, but by placing a knife on either side of it the feat is 
easily accomphshad. Explain. 

12 



PHYSICS. 

MOTION. 

Motion is simply a change of position, and is the effect 
of the application of force. Life is motion; universal death 
and destruction would result from the cessation of motion. 

Motion is considered under the two classes of Abso- 
lute and Relative (or comparative motion). Absolute 
motion considers a change of position without regard to 
any other moving body. Relative motion is motion con- 
sidered in relation to any other body. 

Motion may be uniform, in which a body passes over 
equal space in equal periods of time — as the movement of 
the hands of a clock; accelerated, in which the spaces passed 
over in equal periods of time is constantly increased; and 
retarded, when the spaces diminish. % 

Velocity is simply the rate of motion, or space related 
to time. 

Momentuin is the force with which a moving body 
would strike another, and is found by multiplying its weight 
by its rate. A small weight will have a greater momentum 
than a larger one, if it has a greater velocity. 

ACTION AND REACTION. 

A moving body communicating motion to another loses 
as much of its momentum as it gives to the other. The 
power which a body has to impart its motion to another by 
impact we call action, and the power which the second body 
has of depriving the first of a portion of its momentum we 
designate by the term reaction. The general law which 
governs them is, that action and reaction are equal, but 
opposite in direction. 

Resistance is the name given to any force which will 
retard, destroy or change the direction of motion. The 
chief natural resistances are the air, friction and gravity. 

13 



PHYSICS. 

Motion is transmitted gradually from atom to atom. It 
is governed by laws usually termed "Newton's Laws of 
Motion." They are as follows: 

1. A body at rest remains at rest; a body in motion 
moves with uniform velocity in straight lines, unless acted 
upon by some external force. 

2. Change of motion is in the direction in which 
the force acts, and is proportional to its intensity and time 
of action. 

3. To every action there is an equal and opposite re- 
action. 

Reflected motion is that given to an elastic body which 
impacts with a hard surface. The angle of incidence is the 
angle formed by the line along which the approaching body 
moves; the angle of reflection is that formed by it upon 
receding from the reflecting surface. The law of these 
angles is,— the angle of incidence equals the angle of re- 
flection. 

COMPOUND MOTION. 

Compound motion is motion produced by the action of 
two or more forces acting at the same time upon the same 
object. Since the object can not move in two directions at 
the same time, it moves between the lines of direction 
which each force would impart. This line is called the re- 
sultant, and is always determined by the relative strength 
of the forces acting to produce it. If two forces act upon 
the same point in opposite directions, or parallel, the re- 
sultant is equal to their difference. If there are more than 
two forces the resultant is equal to the difference of the 
sums of the opposing forces. For example, if a force of 100 
pounds is exerted against a closed door to keep it shut and 
a force upon the opposite side of 150 pounds is exerted to 
open it the resultant wiU be simply the arithmetical differ- 

14 



PHYSICS. 

ence between the two forces. If more than two forces are 
exerted the resultant will be Indicated by the difference of 
the combined forces. 

When two forces act upon a point from different direc- 
tions, representing two sides of a parallelogram, the result- 
ant is represented by the diagonal of a parallelogram and 
involves the appKcation of a principle known as the par- 
allelogram of forces. This can not be better illustrated 
than in rowing a boat across a stream. Two forces, the 
force of the current and that of the rower, are involved. 
When there are three or more components the resultant of 
any two may be compounded with a third; the third with 
the fourth, etc. The resultant is always greater thai% the 
difference between the components and less than their sum. 

Circular motion is a branch of compound motion in 
which two forces act constantly upon a moving object. 
One called the Centripetal (centrum, center; peto, seek;) 
alone acting would cause the body to move in a straight 
line to the center of motion; the other, called Centrifugal, 
(centrum, center; and fugo, to flee;) acting alone would 
cause it to move in a straight Hue into space. The two 
acting simultaneously and with equal force cause motion in 

a circle. All bodies left free to move have a tendency to 
rotate. If a stone is attached to a cord and whirled about 
the head it exerts a constant strain in the direction of the 
cord. The strain is the centrifugal force ; the pull of the 
hand is the centripetal force. The operation of these forces 
may be seen in many cases of rotary motion, as the sMng, 
railroad curves, a pail of water whirled in a vertical 
circle, etc. 

FALLING BODIES. 

All bodies above the surface of the earth, being acted 
upon by gravitation, will fall to the earth unless they are 
lighter than air. The laws governing falling bodies are 
the following: 

15 



PHYSICS. 

1. The velocity of a falling body is independent of its 
mass. (Galileo). 

Galileo, by letting two stones of unequal weight fall 
from the top of the leaning tower of Pisa, Italy, proved the 
same truth without reference to a vacuum. 

2. In a vacuum all bodies fall with equal velocity 
(Torricelli). 

Falling bodies acquire acceleration of movement; 
hence — 

1. The velocity acquired in falling varies as the time. 
The velocity at the end of any second of time is equal to 
32.16 multiplied by the number of the second. 

2. Space passed over in successive intervals of equal 
duration varies as the odd numbers, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, etc. The 
space traversed during any second is equal then to 16.08 
feet multipMed by one less than twice the number of the 
second. 

3. The entire space varies as the square of the time 
occupied in falUng. The entire distance, then, is equal to 
16.08 feet multiphed by the square of the number of 
seconds. 

It has been found that in a vacuum, a body falls 16-iV 
feet in the first second of time, gains 3x16 1\- feet during the 
second second of time, and passes 16-1^x22 in the entire 
two seconds. This is shown by the use of an instrument 
styled "Atwood's Machine". 

If a body is thrown downward instead of being dropped 
the effect of the throw must be added as weU as the effect 
of gravity. 

Bodies thrown upward.— When a body is thrown 
vertically upward its velocity is diminished every second by 
gravity. It has been found that it loses as much velocity 

16 



PH^BICS. 

every second as a falling body gains — 32^ feet. The time 
required for a body to reach its greatest height is equal tc 
the initial velocity divided by 32^. 

Projectiles are acted upon by three forces,— the im- 
pulsive force or the force of projection, the force of gravity 
and the resistance of the air. The path of projectiles is a 
parabolic curve, the resultant of these forces. If a ball is 
shot horizontally its time of flight is the same as if dropped 
from the point of projection. If shot obKquely upward its 
time of flight is twice the time required for it to fall from 
the highest point of its path. The above statements are 
modified to some extent by the resistance of the air, the 
nature of the curve being somewhat modified. * 

Practical Questions; 

1. What is the velocity of a body after it has fallen 
five seconds? Six seconds? Eight seconds? 

2. How far will a body fall in eight seconds? In ten 
seconds? In twelve seconds? 

3. If a body falls freely for eight seconds, how far does 
it faU during the last two seconds? 

4. A baU projected upward has a velocity of 6432 feet. 
How long will it continue to rise? What is its velocity at 
the end of the fifth second? 

5. A body was projected upward with a velocity of 
192.96 feet. How high did it rise? 



17 



PHYSICS. 

OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

(first paper). 

1. Define Physics. Matter. Molecules. Atoms. 

2. Name the general and special properties of matter J 

3. Define Dynamics. What is meant by Molecular 
forces? 

4. Define Adhesion. Cohesion. Capillary Attraction. 
Chemical Aflanity. 

6. Name the specific properties of bodies. Define each. 

6. Define Gravitation. What is the law of gravitation. 

7. By whom was gravitation discovered? When? 

Name some of the recognized estabhshed facts about 
gravitation. 

8. Define Weight. Where is the weight of a given 
body the greatest? Why? 

9. What is the Pendulum? Give the laws of the Pen- 
dulum. 

10. What is the length of the Pendulum at the equator? 
At the poles? 

11. How is the specific gravity of any substance found? 
How find the specific gravity of a gas? 

12. Describe the Hydrometer. Where is the center of 
gravity of a given body? 

13. What is meant by Equilibrium? When is a body 
said to be in stable equihbrium? In indifferent equiKbrium? 

14. Upon what is the use of the plumb line based? 

15. Define relative motion. 

16. Define resistance. Give Newton's laws of motion. 

17. Define reflected motion. Compound motion. 

18. What is the result when two forces act upon a 
given body from different directions? Explain. 

19. Differentiate between centrifugal and centripetal 
motion. 

20. Give the laws of falling bodies. 

18 



I 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

(FISST PAPEB.) 

"What we think for ourselves will form a channel 
through which other thoughts may flow." 

History, in its broadest sense, may be considered a 
record of the human race, of its origin, division into fami- 
lies, migrations, organization into governments, the deeds 
of the leaders, and the influence exercised by them in de- 
termining the course of events reaching, perhaps, many 
centuries into the future. 

The origin of nations can never be certainly known. 
It is impossible to distinguish between fable and truth in 
the legends of a people. Comparative pliilolog-y en- 
ables us to discover traces of evidence that the human 
race, in some remote period of the past, had either 
a common origin, or at least a close aflSlnity in lan- 
guages. When we find such words as house, and oth- 
ers which refer to the home occupations of a peo- 
ple, represented in different languages by words having a 
common root, it is reasonable to assume that those words 
had a common origin in one race. Example, domos, 
Greek; domus, Latin; dama, Sanskrit; demana, Persian, 
meaning a house. 

The records of history consider chiefly the three great 
branches of the Caucasian race: the Aryans (Arya, 
excellent— Sanskrit), the Shemites (Semites), and Ham- 
ites. The Aryans are supposed to have divided in 
their migrations into two branches; the one going 
south from the plains of Persia, or Iran, as it was 
called in an earher period, southeast of the Caspian 
Sea, the other going northward around the sea, and then 
turning westward. The first branch gave origin to the. 



GBN3SRAL HISTORY. 

language, etc., of the Hindoo and kindred races, as well as 
to the Medes and their kindred, the Persians. The seconci 
branch skirted the northern shores of the Mediterranean, 
laying the foundation of the Greek, Roman, German and 
Celtic peoples. The chief branches of the Semites were 
the Chaldeans, Assyrians, Babylonians, Hebrews, Phoeni- 
cians, Arabians. The most important branch of the Hamites 
were the Egyptians. The most noble achievements in 
civilization, and the highest places in history belong only 
to Aryans and their descendants. 

No man, though he were to devote all the hours of 
long hfe to the study of this branch of human science, ne-^ 
glecting all other elements of knowledge, making his brain 
only a storehouse of historical facts, could become such a 
master of history as would enable him to cast aside all 
reference books. Moreover, the long period of time em- 
braced in the three divisions of general history— Ancient, 
Mediaeval and Modern— is so great, and includes the records 
of so many peoples and nations, that the brief limits of 
space and time which can be given to this branch will ne- 
cessarily compel a very thorough condensation of informa- 
tion to be gained only by an extended course of reading. 
We shall be compelled to deal only with the turning 
points in history as Sir Edward S. Creasy has dealt with 
the "Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World,'' briefly. 

General History is usually considered under three 
heads, viz: 1. Ancient history, which terminates A. D. 
476_the date of the overthrow of the Western Roman 
Empire. 2. Mediaeval history, extending from A. D. 476 
to A. D. 1453— which marks the destruction of the Eastern 
Roman Empire. 3. Modern History, from A. D. 1453 to 
the present time. 



gbn:^ral history. 

Chronolog'y (chronos, time; logos, discourse) is that 
division of our study which treats of the dates of events 
as belonging to a central or fixed date, which we classify 
as an era, called also epoch. 

The first Olympiad, 776 B. C, is the era from which 
the Greeks dated their time. The Romans dated all events 
with reference to the founding of Rome, A. U. C, 
(Anno Urbis Conditse, from the founding of the city). 
'Research seems to fix this year of the founding of Rome 
at 750, or 763 before the Christian era. Authorities differ 
somewhat in regard to the relation of these epochs to the 
Christian era. All dates in the Christian era are marked 
A. D. (Anno Domini— in the year of our Lord), while 
dates preceding his birth are marked B. C, before Christ 
(or A. C.,for the Latin ante Christum). In Mohamme- 
dan history, and among all the peoples who accept Al 
Koran as the sacred book of their reMgion, the Flight of 
Mohammed (The Hegira), A. D. 622, is the author- 
ized date. In technical astronomical writings A. M. (anno 
mundi— the year of the world ) is generally used, and has 
no reference to any political or religious era. 

EGYPT. 

Whence tha early Egyptians came, and at what time 
they first made their appearance in the region of the Nile 
is unknown. Like the origin of all ancient nations, that of 
Egypt is fable. Its pyramids, the ruins of vast temples, 
its obeMsks with their inscriptions, aU give evidence of an 
antiquity reaching back, it may be, to the remotest history 
of the human race. Herodotus mentions that at the time 
of his visit, the priests claimed for their people an antiquity 
of 11,000 years. It was only when the Rosetta Stone (the 
key by which the hieroglyphics could be deciphered) was 



G^Nl^RAI/ HISTORY. 

discovered by Ohampollion that the records carved on the 
obelisks, the temples, and the tombs gave up their secrets. 

It is generally agreed by ethnologists that the earlj 
Egyptians were of Caucasian descent, as is evidenced b^ 
their features and the similarity of many words in their^ 
language to words in other tongues having the same mean- 
ing. The English word mother is mut in Egyptian; matar 
In Sanskrit; meter in Greek; mater in Latin; mutter in 
German. 

The first king of Egypt of whom we have knowledge 
IS Menes (lived not later than 4000 B. 0. ) 

During the age of the Fourth Dynasty kings (about 
2700 B. 0.) were built the great pyramids on the west side 
of the Nile River near Memphis (the modern Cairo). The 
largest of these, the pyramid of Cheops, was four hundred 
and eighty feet high and its base covered an area of 
thirteen acres. The pyramids served as burial places for 
the kings. 

One of the most important events in the early history 
of Egypt, and one which left a strong impression upon its 
subsequent life, was the invasion of the "Shepherd Kings," 
or Hyksos, about 2000 B. C, who ruled during a period 
of 600 years. As it was contrary to the customs and beliefs 
of the native Egyptians to give any foreigner a position of 
importance in their government, it is argued that Joseph 
the Hebrew could have become prime minister to the 
Pharaoh during this period only. 

The three centuries following the expulsion of the 
Hyksos Kings are usually considerd the most illustrious in 
Egyptian history, both in regard to its military history, its 
conquests of other nations, and its advance in the arts of 
architecture, sculpture, etc. It was during this period that 
the renowned Thothmes III built splendid temples and 



I 



g:e^n:e^rai, history. 

obelisks at Memphis and Thebes. The great Hall of Kar- 
nak, whose Propylon still excites the wonder and admira- 
tion of travelers as they approach the site of Thebes, was 
built during this period by Seti (or Sesostris), son of 
Rameses I. 

After the reigns of Seti and Rameses II, the grandeur 
and power of Egypt declined. It was by the assistance of 
an Ethiopian king of Egypt that the Jews under King 
Hezekiali were enabled to inflict a terrible defeat upon 
Sennaclierib, the king of Assyria. The Assyrian power, 
however, finally reduced Egypt, and held it subject to As- 
syria until Psammetichus succeeded in reestablishing 
Egypt as an independent power. Psammetichus encouraged 
merchants from Greece to become permanent settlers in his 
dominions, thus reversing the policy of the former Egypt- 
ian kings of exclusion of foreigners. His son and succes- 
sor, Neclio, took greater interest in maritime affairs than 
had ever before been shown. He built fleets on the Red 
and Mediterranean Seas, and ordered an expedition to 
discover the shape of the southern part of Africa, an at- 
tempt which resulted in doubling the Cape of Good Hope 
at its southern extremity nearly 2,000 years before the 
voyages of Diaz and De Gama. 

After Necho's reign, Egypt became subject to Babylonia 
but gained temporary independence under Amasis who 
greatly advanced the welfare of his kingdom in a long 
reign. A man of great enterprise, he erected many fine 
buildings and monuments, and formed an alhance with 
Croesus, king of Lydia, for the better protection of Egypt 
against the increasing strength of Persia. After a long 
struggle Egypt came under the power of Persia and never 
again succeeded in establishing a firm government, - The 

5 



\ 



G:gNERAI/ HISTORY. 

prophecy of Ezekiel has been fulfilled— "there shall be no 
more a prince of the land of Egypt." 

Egypt is sometimes called the ''gift of the Nile," be- 
cause of the f ertihty due to the annual inundations of that 
river and the deposit of black fertile soil at such times. 
Egypt was the granary of the ancient nations and it was 
due to the ease with which products could be raised, that 
the kings, were able to employ hundreds of thousands of 
laborers in the construction of their massive buildings. 

In religion the Egyptians were supposed at first, to 
have been monotheists, but subsequently the multiph- 
cation of deities whom they worshiped rendered their sys- 
tem of religion complex. In certain secret mysteries, the 
priests only were admitted into the most sacred chambers 
of the temples. Only to a part of the rehgious services 
were the people admitted. The custom of embalming was 
due to the behef that the soul would, at some future time, 
return to reanimate the body. The bull, the cat, the beetle 
and many other animals were held in great reverence as 
being sacred to the gods. 

The power of the Pharaoh was hmited only by the in- 
fluences exerted over him by the priests. Women could 
ascend the throne; they could also enter the priesthood. 
The priests were the learned class of Egypt. They owned 
one-third of the land. They had charge of the temples, 
the rehgious services, and were keepers of the records. 
The soldiers formed the second class. They also owned 
one-third, of the land. The third class comprised the arti- 
sans, agriculturists, shepherds. 

The Egyptians were remarkable for their advancement 
in the industrial arts, as the weaving of cotton and Unen 
cloth, the manufacture of glass, pottery, copper, brass, and 
in agriculture. They excelled Jin architecture, their build- 

6 



g:e?N]^ral history. 

ings being characterized by their massive forms and dura- 
bility. Their pyramids, of which there are seventy stand- 
ing on the banks of the Nile, are the most famous of their 
buildings. 

CHINA. 

"Cathay," that wondrous land first visited by Marco 
Polo, the Venetian traveler, was a land of such 
strange people, strange customs, strange languages and 
strange government, as to seem the domain of the genii of 
fable It reaches so far back in its history that it appears al- 
most as the first born of nations, and has continued un- 
changed for so many centuries upon centuries that its 
ancient and mediaeval history merges into and J^ecomes 
part of the modem era. It is the oldest empire now in ex- 
istence; it has remained virtually unchanged for five 
thousand years, and if mythical history could be taken as 
reliable, its life has been the same for many times that 
period. 

The aboriginal inhabitants of China were conquered 
more than two thousand years before Christ by Turanian 
(Mongolian) peoples from the West. These people had at 
that time a knowledge of hieroglyphic writing, astronomy, 
the art of digging canals and making bricks. They became 
an agricultural people. They early knew the manufacture 
of silk, and understood the art of printing and the manu- 
facture of gun-powder centuries before other nations, at 
least as early as the sixth century after Christ. 

In education the "heathen Chinese" have anticipated 
by many centuries the "more civilized" nations in the re- 
spect that education is general by compulsion; aU males 
must be able to read and write; learning opens the doors 
to positions of honor and profit which are filled by those 
who have passed a species of state civil service examina- 



Gil^N^RAI, HISTORY. 

tion of their educational qualifications, received in schools 
established in all villages and towns, the teachers in which 
are subject to inspection by state examiners as to their 
qualifications, and hold their oflace by hfe-tenure. The 
examinations are based upon the "Nine Classics," five 
books of philosophy and history written in early times and 
four books written by the disciples of Confucius. 

Confucius was the great moral teacher of the Chinese 
( Hved about the sixth century B. C. ) Confucianism is 
not, as many suppose, a system of religion, but one of 
philosophy, in which is inculcated as its chief tenets the 
principles of morality, honesty and philanthropy. "Walk 
in the trodden paths" is the sum of its teaching. 

The leading reMgious cults of China are Buddhism (in- 
troduced from India) and Taoism. Taoism teaches mor- 
ality, the cultivation of purity in thought and deed, the 
repression of all base passions, the communication of the 
living with the spirits of the departed, and the veneration 
(or worship) of ancestors. 

The most noteworthy ruler of the Chinese in ancient 
times was Chi Hwangti. He had built along the northern 
frontier about 214 B. C, the Great Chinese Wall to keep 
out the Tartar Hordes. It is the most stupendous line of de- 
fense ever erected. It is sixteen hundred miles long, 
twenty-five feet thick at the base, and fifteen feet thick at 
the top. Chi Hwangti, in order that the history of China 
might begin with his reign, and no previous record con- 
tinue to be extant, ordered all collections of books to be 
burned, and is said to have also ordered four hundred 
learned men to be buried alive. Only a few fragments of 
the writings of Confucius and Mencius escaped this edict 
of destruction, and these are the sources of our present 
knowledge of ancient China. 

8 



GKN:i^RAIv HISTORY. 

The Chinese people have great genius, but because of 
their policy of exclusion, which they have held from earl- 
iest times, they have failed to influence, to any great ex- 
tent, other nations, and their own civilization has remained 
stationary for thousands of years. 

INDIA. 

India has been appropriately called the "land of mys- 
tery," a title which in many respects is still as pertinent 
as when the land was first brought to the knowledge of 
Europeans; a land which has always been known as one of 
the most densely populated regions of the earth, "full of a 
barbaric splendor and a strange wisdom." 

It has already been mentioned that the original home 
of the great Aryan race seems to have been the region ex- 
tending from the shores of the Caspian Sea to the northern 
boundary of the territory drained by the Indus, and that in 
the southward migration of a portion of this race, the 
coimtry south of the Indus was entered by th«m and the 
aboriginal inhabitants reduced to subjection. The race 
whom the Aryans subdued were dark-skinned, or black, 
the Aryans, white. The offspring of the Aryan invaders 
and the native Sudras, or conquered people, were the pro- 
genitors of the Hindoos; the name Hindustan — of Aryan 
origin— signifies "the country of the Hindus." In the ab- 
sence of all records it is impossible to say at what time the 
Aryan invasion occurred, with even the shghtest degree of 
certainty, but legendary report fixes the date at about 
three thousand years before Christ. 

After the Aryans had subdued the country between 
the Punjab and the Ganges, they laid aside their warlike 
habits, and became an agricultural people and builders of 
cities. As a result of this change India advanced in civiU- 
zation; the Hindoos made high attainments in useful and 



OEn:^raI/ history. 

ornamental arts, in literature, and in the special type of 
philosophy which suited a people of contemplative habit 
of thought, and one preeminently indifferent to the affairs 
of human hfe. It would naturally result that upon ad- 
vancing to a certain stage of development such a people 
would become stationary. 

The language became crystalized. The sacred San- 
skrit, introduced by the Aryans, one of the most ancient 
languages, became obsolete, and now survives only in a, 
fragmentary form. The oldest existing works in the an- ;j 
cient Hindoo hterature are the sacred poems or hymns— j 
the Vedas. The last hymn in the Vedas is said ^io have 
been composed at the time when the conquering hordes^ 
from the north had arrived at the Ganges, the sacred river; 
of the native blacks— a hymn of warhke triumph. 

The recently revived study of the Sanskrit— a study! 
rendered comparatively easy for modern philologists 
through the identity of the root words of domestic terms 
in many modern languages with those found in the San- 
skrit, which has thus become intelUgible as the hieroglyphs 
of Egypt were by the aid of the Rosetta stone — gives us 
what knowledge we possess of this people, of their migra- 
tions already alluded to, and of their religion — Brahminism, 
introduced by the Aryans from their ancient home near 
the Caspian Sea. The Aryans imposed upon their con- 
quered subjects certain social restrictions, which have con- 
tinued to exist until the present day. The people 
were divided into four classes, or castes, and these for 
various reasons, social and rehgious, were not allowed to 
intermarry or to infringe upon the assigned privileges of 
each other. 

In the division of rights, the priesthood were given 
the most influential and important rank— that of the first 

10 



GBNE^RAL HISTORY. 

caste. They were wealthy, honorable, and held political 
and ecclesiastical power in excess of that pertaining to any 
other rank — the royal princes even, being less revered— 
their persons and property being deemed sacred and in- 
violable. 

The second caste comprised the warriors who were 
held responsible for defense of the state, and in return for 
the observance of their duty were endowed with certain 
inviolable rights, revocable only by the priests. From this 
class the Kings were selected. 

In the third caste were enrolled the tillers of the soil, 
mechanics and persons engaged in commercial enterprises. 
This class was heavily taxed for the support of the first 
and second castes and the only title to the lands which they 
cultivated, or the places which they used for business pur- 
poses, was occupancy. Necessarily they retained to a 
large degree the nomadic habits of their ancestors. 

Members of the fonrtli caste were the Sudras (a 
name said to signify black), which was the lowest caste of 
all. They were dark-skinned servants and common la- 
borers who were compelled to follow, generation after 
generation, the same line of occupation as their ancestors. 
Indeed this seemed to be a general law, or a custom spring- 
ing from the desire to keep the various castes continuously 
distinct. A fifth class, called Pariahs— outcasts, embraced 
all individuals from any one of the four castes who had in 
any way violated any of the multitudinous rules of their 
own especial class. These, as well as lepers in aU times 
and places, were looked upon as unclean and accursed 
of the gods, they were despised and oppressed at wiU by 
others, and were not allowed to dwell with or approach 
others, the sight and touch of whom was considered pollu- 
tion. 

11 



GBNKRAI/ HISTORY. ; 

The Vedas teach the monotheistic idea of one Supreme 
God, an Infinite Spirit who is omnipresent and omnipotent, 
His power was manifested under three forms, viz: Brahma, 
the "Creator," Vishnu the "Preserver," and Siva the 
/'Destroyer." In this subdivision we can recognize the 
prototype of the Trinity, in some respects. Their doc- 
trine of "transmigration of souls" implies a belief in im- 
mortahty. The souls of those whose lives, as human be- 
ings, had not been pure passed at death into the bodies ot 
lower animals as a punishment, and recommenced the 
cycle of evolution, while the pure continued in a future 
existence until they reached Nirvana. 

When the wonderful reKgious reformer and teacher, 
Prince Gautama ( born about 557 B. C), called Buddha, 
signifying "The one who knows," "The Enhghtened"— 
rejecting all the allurements of a royal life, began to purify 
his spirit by abstinence, suffering, etc., from earthly vices, 
and to inculcate a purer and holier hfe as a necessity for 
obtaining a happier life in the future world, and to amel- 
iorate the miseries of the present, he gave rise to Budd- 
hism, a rehgion pure and spiritual in its teachings, but 
which afterwards became corrupted by idolatrous teaching 
and practices imposed upon it. 

Buddha taught "the eternity of a universal hope, the 
immortahty of a boundless love, an indestructible element 
of faith in final good, and the proudest assertion ever 
made of human freedom."— (Edwin Arnold.) Charity 
(love), and submission to the will of the Supreme God are 
also taught in this poetic pharaphrase of one of Buddha's 
precepts, 

"What good I see, humbly I seek to do, 

And live obedient to the Law, in trust 

That what will come— and must come— will come well. " 

12 



G:igN:^RAI^ HISTORY. 

It is notable how many of the doctrines of modern 
theology show so strong a simiKtude to those taught by 
Buddha, Zoroaster and others of the founders of the purer 
types of ancient theology, a similarity to be explained 
only by the theory of the Aryan origin of the teachers. 

India had always been an attractive field to the ancient 
warriors and conquerors as it has been to those of more 
modern date. It was invaded and subdued by Darius Hys- 
taspes, by Alexander the Great and his Macedonian hosts, 
byMahmond of Ghiznee, by Zinghis Khan, Tamerlane, 
and Nadir Shah — each of whom left some shght evidences 
of their occupancy upon the language and customs of the 
people— and in more modern times by the Enghsh under 
Lord CMve and Sir Arthur Wellesley { the Duke of WelKng- 
ton). But in aU general matters, India was left unchanged 
and apparently unchangeable, a land abounding in ancient 
temples and grottoes hewn out from rock of porphyry, a 
land whose native type of religion is still but sKghtly 
changed from its pagan form, a land in which castes— the 
social distinctions established by the Aryan invaders — 
still remain inviolate, a land in which the religious behefs 
and systems exist as when first made known to Europeans. 

THE CHALDEAN EMPIRE. 

The Chaldean (First Babylonian) Empire was the first 
of three empires to hold sway in the regions of Asia 
drained by the Tigris and Euphrates. The most famous 
city of the empire was Babylon, which, however, in an 
earlier period was eclipsed in size and importance by "Ur 
of the Chaldees." The date of the founding of the city of 
Babylon is uncertain. The name — Greek in form — is from 
Babel, or Bab-ili — ^the "gate of the gods." It is mentioned 
in the tables of Berosus. The Chaldeans were of mixed 
race, Turanian and Semitic. Their religion united a belief 

13 



g:^n:^s.ai, history. 

in good and evil spirits with tlie worship of heavenly 
bodies and was known as Baal- worship, from the name of j 
their chief god, Baal, to whom the highest reverence was 
paid, and in whose honor the richest offerings were laid 
upon the altars in the most magnificent temples. Practi- ] 
cally the same religious beliefs wereheld by the Chaldeans, 
Assyrians and later Babylonians. 

The first king of whom we have knowledge is S argon i 
I ( 3,800 B. C), who translated into the Semitic language the 
old Turanian literature and collected the writings in 
libraries. 

The Chaldeans were conquered by the neighboring 
Elamites and were for a time subject to them. Their power 
was at length broken by the more war-hke Assyrians 
about 1250 B. C, though for about two centuries they were 
constantly revolting. 

ASSYRIA. 

The Assyrians, a Semitic people, had occupied at an 
early date the portion of Asia drained by the upper Tigris. 
The capital of the empire was finally established at 
Nineveh, a city which became one of the most renowned 
in the Mesopotamic basin. 

The first great conqueror of the Assyrians was Tig- 
lath-Pileser I, who gained victories over the Hittites in 
Syria. Tiglath-Pileser II, several centuries later, 
gained victories in Syria, Palestine, Phoenicia, extending 
his power to the Mediterranean Sea. He centrahzed the 
government of his empire by removing the native princes 
from control in the conquered provinces and substituting 
Assyrian governors answerable directly to him. Sargon 
captured Samaria and scattered the Ten Tribes among the 
Assyrian provinces. He built a city, the ruins of which 
exist in the great mound Khorsabad. 






14 



t 



G:gN]I^RAL HISTORY. 

Sennacheril), the son and successor of S argon, is 

perhaps the Assyrian king with whose conquests and 
acts we are the most familiar, from the Bibhcal accounts 
of his invasions of Judea, the carrying to Babylon by him 
of 200,000 captive Jews, and his final repulse, and the de- 
struction of his army by pestilence during the reign of 
King Hezekiah. 

It was during the reign of Asshurbanipal (Sardan- 
apalus) that the glory of the Assyrian empire reached its 
summit. In addition to his mihtary quaUties he was char- 
acterized by his great love for the nobler and more refining 
arts, as music, sculpture, architecture, etc. After his reign 
the dechne of Assyria was rapid. The states subject to 
Assyria, held together only by external force, revolted re- 
peatedly. In 625 Nabopolassar, Assyrian governor of 
Babylonia, revolted from the Assyrian king, conquered the 
Assyrians and set up an independent government, the 
second Babylonian Monarchy. 

BABYLONIA. 

Nabopolassar was succeeded by his son Nebuchad- 
nezzar, famous for his wars and building. He brought to 
an end the Kingdom of Judah and conquered the Phoenician 
city. Tyre, after a thirteen years' siege. In his capital, 
Babylon, he built the Temple of Seven Spheres, the cele- 
brated Hanging Gardens, and a magnificent palace. 
Throughout his country he had constructed reservoirs, 
canals, and various engineering works. 

By the later kings of Babylon, the Great Walls were 
built. They enclosed an area fourteen miles square and 
according to Herodotus were eighty -five feet thick and 
three hundred and twenty-five feet high. 

Babylon was captured in 538 B. 0. by Cyrus the Great, 
of Persia, and became a province of his empire. 

15 



G:^N:^RAIy HISTORY. 

The civilization of the Babylonians and Assyrians was 
of such a character as we might look for in a people who 
were the offspring of the union of two different races— the 
Semites, of the south, and Turanians, of the north. The 
Chaldeans were distinguished for their architectural ability 
and taste. Immense pyramidal buildings were erected by 
them with the simple materials of brick and bitumen; the 
bricks stamped in cuneiform (wedge-shaped) characters 
became the repository of historical events, and the source 
of much of the knowledge we now possess. They were 
acquainted, at least to some extent, with the use and 
manufacture of metals, and with the art of weaving; they 
were the noted forerunners of the Egyptians in astronomy, 
their records extending back more than 2,000 years before 
Christ. As navigators, we learn of the ships of "Ur of the 
Chaldees" saihng the waters of the Persian Gulf long be- 
fore the Mediterranean turned its waters before the prows 
of the vessels of Tyre. 

Inscriptions upon obeHsks, etc., show the Assyrians not 
a rude, barbarous nation, but a people well advanced in 
metallurgy, sculpture, painting, geography, and astronomy. 
They showed great taste and skill in weaving hnen, cotton, 
and silk; and the skill they inherited as a race whose an- 
cestors for many generations have been workers in clay, 
enabled them to set the model for beauty of form in pot- 
tery to even the Greeks. 

PHCENICIA. 

Phoenicia was a confederacy of powerful cities located 
on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea, a territory 
extending only one hundred and twenty miles on the shore 
of the Mediterranean, and having as its eastern boundary 
the ranges of Lebanon at an average distance of twenty^ 
miles. The most important of these cities were Tyre ani 

16 



g:^n:e^raiv history. 

Sidon, the former, in time, acquiring the supremacy over 
all. Their location on the shore of the "Great Sea" and 
their limited territory rendered them especially a maritime 
and commercial people. 

The language of the people is so nearly akin to that of 
their allies in the time of Kings David and Solomon, the 
Hebrews, as to show them to have been of Semitic origin. 
They are supposed to have migrated from the plains of 
Chaldea soon after the death of Nimrod, the king. 

The most famous of the kings of the Phcenicians was 
Hiram, "King of Tyre," as he is styled in the Hebrew Bible, 
which book indeed is the chief source of our knowledge of 
the Phoenicians. Between Solomon and Hiram, kings of 
neighboring states, the one, ruler of a commercial race, 
the other, of an agricultural people, there existed a strong 
personal friendship, one which was further strengthened 
by commercial treaties. The Hebrews furnished the 
Tyrians with the cereals and other agricultural products 
needed by them, and the Tyrians supplied with articles of 
luxury and of special necessity, a people who seemed to 
have been more than usually deficient in artistic skill. 
The greatest part of the material used in the building of 
the Temple in Jerusalem, and the "cunning workmen" 
who erected it, the rich tapestry and ornaments of oriental 
splendor were furnished Solomon by his friend of Tyre. 

The tyranny of one of the later kings drove many of 
his subjects to a revolt in which they were led by Queen 
Dido. Being defeated by her brother. Dido and several 
thousands of the citizens seized the ships lying in the har- 
bor, loaded them with the rich treasure of the city, sailed 
westward upon the Mediterranean, and landing on the 
north coast of Africa, founded, near the Straits of Gibral- 
tar, the city of Carthage, the great rival of Rome. 

17 



GBN:^RAIy HISTORY. 

Their skill as navigators, the extent of their commerce, 
and their knowledge of architecture and textile arts, were 
important elements in determining their character as a 
colonizing race. Many of the most important places 
along the Mediterranean coast, on the islands of the sea, 
and on the mainland of Spain, were colonies estabUshed by 
the Tyrians in furthering their commercial interests. 
Notable among these are those founded on the island of 
Cyprus (called Chittim in the Bible), in Sicily, Sardinia, 
Malago, Gadez (now Cadiz), and other points in the 
Spanish seas— waystations in their voyages to Cornwall for 
tin, and to the North and Baltic Seas for amber. 

A marine trade was carried on by them with India and 
Ceylon by way of the Persian Gulf. From these sections 
they brought pearls, diamonds, and jewelry of gold and 
silver. Overland trade was also established with Arabia 
and Babylon by caravans, as it is today. 

The Tyrian textile fabrics were celebrated for their 
great beauty, especially those dyed with the famous 
"Tyrian purple." This very costly dye was made from 
minute drops of a secretion of two species of shell fish, or 
mussels, the buccinum and murex, dredged from the sea. 
Great taste was also shown in the art of glass-blowing, 
which they, as well as the Egyptians, claimed to have in- 
vented. Their skill in pottery, in the manufacture of me- 
tallic objects, and of jewelry, and in carving, seems from 
Bibhcal references, to have been remarkable. The He- 
brews are thought to have obtained from the Tyrians all 
such ornamental articles as are mentioned in Isaiah 3, 18-23. 

As architects their work appears to have been con- 
structed with special regard to strength and durability. 
Evidence of this is still seen in the enormous stones built 
into the lower tiers of masonry, yet remaining in the 

18 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

ruined walls of the Temple at Jerusalem, laid by Tyrian 
masons. 

The Phoenician alphabet of twenty-two characters 
strictly phonetic, is supposed to have been invented before 
the date of the Exodus, though this claim to antiquity is 
disputed by Egyptians. It is doubtless the first real al- 
phabet so far brought to light, one which was widely 
diffused by the Tyrians whose colonies instructed the peo- 
ple among whom they were estabhshed in its use. That 
the Phoenicians were a literary people we learn from Bib- 
lical sources; their works being chiefly devoted to religion 
and practical arts. 

Their Religion.— Again we must depend upon the 
Hebrew Bible for most of our knowledge as to the religious 
system of this people. They have left no sacred books 
like the "Old Testament" of the Hebrews, the ''Book of 
the Dead" of the Egyptians, the ''Zend-avesta" of the 
Persians, the "Vedas" of the Hindus. Though polytheistic, 
and though every house had within its walls one or more 
idols, yet these were not worshipped, but were simply 
symbols of the Baahm, the multitude of minor divinities. 

Their worship was cruel in character, children and 
adults being offered upon their altars, especially in times of 
calamity, as during the long sieges. The worship of 
Astarte was especially distinguished for its licentious 
character. It was against these enormities implanted in 
the religious ceremonies of the Hebrews, by Jezebel and 
others, that the anathemas of the prophets were hurled. 



mt 



19 



g:rn]5Rai< history. 



OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

(FIRST PAPER. ) 

1. What is Comparative Philology? 

2. Name the three great races of mankind considered 
in History. 

3. Where was the original home of the Aryans? 

4. How would you classify the reUgious system of 
Egypt? 

6. What can you say of the knowledge of the Egyp- 
tians of civiUzing arts, sciences, etc? 

6. What are the principal characteristics of the 
Chinese people? 

7. Under whose reign was the Great Wall built, and ;, 
for what purpose? 

8. What can you say of the Sanskrit language? 

9. What are the Vedas? What religion was introduced 
into India by the Aryans? 

10. What was Buddhism? 

11. Name and define the classes into which the pebple 
of India were divided. 

12. Where was the Chaldean Empire? 

13. By what was the reign of Tiglath-Pileser II dis 
tinguished? 

14. What can you say of Sennacherib? 
16. In what arts and sciences were the Assyrians we 

advanced? 

16. To what race did the Phoenicians belong? 

17. What important colonies did they found? 

18. What can you say of their alphabet? 

19. What were the chief cities of the Phoenicians? 

20. What can you say of Queen Dido? 



20 





CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 

(FIRST PAPER.) 

"The teacher's whole business is to arouse, direct and 
confirm others, and the test of his ability is the excellence 
of his performance." 

(Latin — civis, a citizen.) 

Civics is that branch of science which treats of the 
various relations in which a person stands with reference 
to the government of the country of which he is a subject 
or p citizen. 

WHY IS GOVERNMENT NECESSARY? 

The necessity of government arises principally from 
two characteristics common to mankind. First, man is a 
social being, or, as some would express it, a "social 
animal." Second, he is a selfish being. Because he is 
social he is much in company with his fellows, because he 
is selfish he strives to advance his own interests even at 
the expense of his associates. Without government, then, 
in this selfish strife, the strong would dominate the weak, 
by taking away their property, by restraining them from 
freedom of action, by depriving them of Ufe itself if their 
unrestrained desires so dictated. Two men no sooner 
form a partnership than they have an "understanding" 
with each other, and this is their government as partners. 
When several persons meet to organize a society or club 
they must, perforce, have their constitution and by-laws 
before their deaUngs with one another as members of the 
organization can progress. This is their government as a 
society. <5chool children have unwritten laws which the 
play -ground bully soon learns to respect. 



■1 

m 



CIVIIy GOV^RNM^NT. 

DEVELOPMENT OF GOVERNMENT. 

As primitive man increased in intelligence and im- 
proved in his manner of getting a living, his desires be- 
came more numerous, he came into social contact with 
more individuals, he had to be restrained in a greater 
number of particulars, and government became necessarily 
more and more complex. Contrast the simple township 
government in the country with the government of a 
large city and you will realize that the myriads of details 
that must be attended to by the municipal government are 
the result of the fact that many people Uve near together 
and that the desires of those people are very numerous 
and conflicting. 

The most primitive form of government was 
that of the ''Family." In this form the father was 
the supreme ruler; his will was law; his power did 
not extend beyond his own near relatives. FamiUes had 
no permanent abode, but wandered about over vast areas, 
and met each other so seldom, that no agreement between 
different families, at first, existed. But when branches of 
a single family had founded other families, these would be 
federated or united into one government because of blood 
relationship. Thus the Clan was formed. (What is a 
"clannish" spirit?) In this form the patriarch or oldest 
man was the recognized head. In the meantime, man had 
doubtless passed from the hunting and fishing stage, in 
which he depended for a living, upon that which nature 
voluntarily furnished, to the Pastoral stage, in which a 
living was obtained in the more intelligent way of raising 
and herding domestic animals. There was then less roam- 
ing. Lands best suited for grazing were taken possession 
of and the claims of different clans frequently ^jonflicted. 
Fighting ensued. A number of weaker clans would unite 



CIVIi; GOV:^RNM]^NT. 

against a clan whicli was stronger than any one of them 
and this union of clans formed the Tribe, with the head 
man of the strongest clan in the union as chief. Here a 
simple form of agriculture was developed as an adjunct to 
grazing. 

Agriculture and stock-raising tied the tribes to the 
land. When they roamed at all their purpose was to find 
a better place for permanent settlement, not a temporary 
grazing spot. 

These, then, are the logical steps in the development 
of government. Family, clan, tribe, and the next step 
would be the kingdom; a form resulting from the su- 
premacy of one tribe over several with its chief as kiftg. 

We learn from the study of the ancient Germanic 
peoples from whom, through its Saxon branch, our 
EngUsh ancestors derived many customs, modes of gov- 
ernment, and the basis of our language, that clans would 
pitch their rude homes by the side of an ever-flow- 
ing spring, on the banks of a river, or on the side 
or cliffs of a mountain, and that for protection against 
wild beasts of the forest, or attacks of human enemies, 
they would surround their groups of dwellings with a 
ditch, high bank, or a palisade. Such a place was called 
by the Saxons a tun (toon), meaning an enclosure. The 
lands adjacent to the tun were held in common for cultiva- 
tion and pasturage under the name of tun-Scipe (toon, 
skipa; A. S., scipe; German, schippe, a spade), Anglicized 
into township. As these townships increased in extent 
of territory, the necessity arose for some mode of deciding 
controversies among themselves, and other questions of 
common interest, which was done by the assemblage of 
the heads of families under the shade of some giant oak, 
about the time of the vernal equinox. This annual as- 



civil/ gov:^rnm:^nt. 

semblage was, then, the forerunner of town meetings of 
our English progenitors, so famihar to New Englanders, 
and still existing under that name, or the name of primary 
caucus, etc. We may say, then, that the Township is the 
oldest form of government known to the Enghsh race. It 
is the basal element of our government. 

INTRODUCTION INTO ENGLAND. 

To confine a study of the science to the Constitution 
of the United States, as is often done in public schools, is 
to confine it within too narrow hmits. It is for the pur- 
pose of broadening the scope of the study in this series 
that we begin with a synopsis, by no means exhaustive, 
of the origin of government in England, as it preceded, 
and became the basis of the Constitution of the United 
States. 

About the middle of the fifth century the Saxons began 
their invasions of England. After a stubborn resistance b; 
the native inhabitants, continuing 150 years, the easte 
part of the country, to which they gave the name of Angle^ 
land (England), was conquered by them; the western pa: 
(Wales) remained free from their sway and continued to 
be Celtic. The Saxons brought with them and applied to 
the conquered portions the organizations to which they 
had become accustomed, and in accordance with their 
home customs their new settlements were formed into 
Townships (tun-skipes), and virtually remained so until 
after the Danish conquest. 

The Danes united several towns under the name of 
Hundreds for mutual aid in times of war. It was sup- 
posed to contain one hundred heads of famiUes, and con- 
stituted part of a shire (sheer). For the better manage- 
ment of the affairs of common interest the Hundreds and 
Towns were represented in the Hundreds' Court by 




civil, gov:^rnm:^nt. 

their wisest and most influential men. Here we have the 
establishment of the principle of representation more than 
one thousand years before it became one of the issues be- 
tween England and her colonies in America. In time of 
war the leader of the united hundreds received the title of 
King (Saxon, cyng; German, koenig, wise). His power 
was slight and held by a slender thread over a people who 
Uttle brooked restraint. 

In addition to the organization of the Township, the 
Saxons introduced the Borough (A. S., burg, fortress). 
This was applied to places in which the population was 
more dense, and to places defended by walls. This classi- 
fication may still be found in some of the Eastern states. 

The Shire (A. S. sciran, to divide or cut off) was 
formed by the union of several hundreds. It was governed 
by representatives from the hundreds, boroughs and towns, 
and by the nobles or knights from the country. (Knight, 
A. S., cniht, a mihtary follower of the King.) The Shire 
corresponds with the division known to us as the County. 
Its court, or assemblage of representatives before men- 
tioned, was under the presidency of an officer called the 
Sheriff (or reeve), who was sometimes elected by the peo- 
ple, at other times was appointed by the King. 

In some sections of England the name Parish was used 
instead of County. The name was given by the Roman 
priests, who had come as missionaries to convert the Eng- 
lish heathen, to the section of land over which they were 
granted peculiar rights and privileges. Its boundaries 
often included a whole county. One special right which 
they_^ exercised was that of collecting the tithes of the 
church from the inhabitants of the parish, thus -adding 
another burden of taxation to those from which the people 
were already suffering. The name— parish — by the way. 



CIVII< GOV:igRNM:^NT. 

is still used in some portions of the United States—] 
Louisiana, e. g.— instead of the word county. 

After the Norman conquest many of the rights whicl 
had been enjoyed by the Enghsh inhabitants were takei 
from them. Even the use of their native language wag 
forbidden in their intercourse with their conquerors^ 
Many of the French nobles received large grants of land- 
in some instances larger than a county— in reward for their 
mihtary services, or other reasons, such as favoritism. 
Upon these manors (French, manoir; Latin, manere, to 
remain, dwell, etc.) they and their retainers continued to 
dwell and exercise a species of sovereignty over those of 
the inhabitants who were so unfortunate as to be occu- 
pants of a soil to which they had no recognized title but 
the will of their lord, and which they could not abandon 
without his consent. But strange as it may appear, the 
Normans found it expedient to retain the forms and in- 
stitutions of the towns and hundreds, so far as local af- 
fairs were concerned. 

The Erighsh ParUament (from the French, meaning to 
speak), the antecedent of our Congress, owed its existence 
to the necessities of the King. The many petty kingdoms 
which had existed in England, were ultimately reduced to 
one kingdom by Egbert, who was crowned king of all 
England A. D. 828. To rule so great an extent of territoi 
the King required the assistance of the principal men ol 
the counties, and the chief lords of the shires. These were 
assembled together, at first in one building, but long afteri 
wards were divided into two sections, the Lords and Com- 
moners, in separate halls. This body, while under th( 
Saxon organization, was called the Witena-gemot (oi 
assemblage of wise men), but when the Normans ob* 
tained control it received its present title of Parliament! 



civiiy gov:^rnm:e^nt. 

The duties of the Parliament were to advise the King, to 
determine the amount of money to be raised by taxing the 
people through their various governmental organizations, 
to provide for public safety, etc. But though the Lords 
and Commoners were supposed to be entirely subservient 
to the King's will, yet they were in reality the conserva- 
tors and promoters of the civil liberty enjoyed by the peo- 
ple. They held the purse, and in the frequent struggles 
between them and the King, the purse won. 

SOUECB OP AMBKICAN LAW. 

Many who have not been taught otherwise, if asked 
what is the source or origin of our system of law. would 
answer ^'The Constitution of the United States," forgetful 
of the fact that government existed in the colonies long 
before the Constitution saw its birth. 

The Common Law of England came to America with 
the Puritans in the May Flower, and with the settlers in 
other colonies. It became the Common Law of the colo- 
nies, even as it has of the United States, before the colo- 
nies had all passed under the control of the English. 

The English government is not founded, as is that of 
the United States, upon a defined written constitution. 
Their Saxon forefathers had no written constitution, or 
constitution of any kind, as a guide to a decision upon any 
matter which was brought before their town- meeting, or 
their Hundreds' Court, at their annual meeting. Decis- 
ions made at one time were handed down from one gener- 
ation to another, till sacredness of law was conferred upon 
customs and usages. But little change was made by the 
Norman conquerors in these usages, the chief one being in 
the office of *' Juries." Time confirmed the tenure of the 
customs upon the minds and hearts of the descendants of 



civil/ GOVi^RNMl^NT. 

these Saxon founders of the nation, and custom bocamo 
Common Law — custom and decisions of courts. 

JUSTICES OF THE PEACE. 

The earliest office to be established, we learn from the 
study of ancient history of England, appears to have been 
that bearing the above title. Canute, the Danish king, 
began his rule in England in 1016, by requiring an oath 
from all citizens that they would ''not be robbers, nor 
thieves, nor harbor persons guilty of these or other crimes 
against the peace of the kingdom," and that they would 
join in pursuit of criminals when the "hue and cry" was 
raised. 

King Richard I, in 1194, appointed knights in each 
shire, with the title of "conservators of the peace" to 
enforce this law, and preserve the peace. 

Edward III, 1272, empowered these conservators to 
"hear and determine felonies," from which time, their 
duties becoming judicial rather than ministerial or execu- 
tive, the name of the office was changed from conserva- 
tor (preserver) to Justice of the Peace, a title still 
attached in America to the incumbent of the lowest oiBce 
in judicial rank. 

As the ancient conservator had behind him all the 
power of the king, to support him in the exercise of his 
official authority, so the Justice speaks in the name of| 
the people, and can command the people in the name of 
the people. "We, the people," is no weak phrase in the 
mouth of the American; it is as strong as the declaration of 
a Roman, "I am a Roman citizen," when the aegis of Ro- 
man power protected him in all the known world. 

A government must protect the good citizen, mus 
restrain and punish the evil disposed, and wrong-doer] 
must administer justice between all, or failing in thes 

8 



CIVIIy GOV:igRNM^NT. 

duties, be no longer a government but an anarchistic 
community. Justice is essential; other duties may be 
neglected or only partially performed, but justice must be 
ever watchful and impartial. 

The agencies for the administration of justice are the 
oldest, were the first estabhshed of all governmental insti- 
tutions. Sheriffs, juries, constables, coroners, we receive 
from our rude Saxon forefathers; courts, marshals, and 
officers of other degrees from Saxon, Danish, and Norman 
sources combined. 

We inherit constable and sheriff from the early stages 
of government in England. The chief man, the leader in 
the Saxon tun-skipe was the tungerefa, the town reeve. 
The title "shire-reeve" was, in course of time, shortened 
into the present form— sheriff . 

The duties of the town-reeve were numerous. He 
presided over the town-meeting, represented the towns 
in the courts, was chief officer of the peace, and captain of 
the hundred in war. In effect he was the head of the 
people's government. 

The shire-reeve was an appointee of the king, and 
in the government of the shire, or county, represented the 
king. 

When the Normans had established themselves in 
England they introduced the office and title of Constable 
—a name derived from "comes stabuU" (companion of 
the stable), or commander of the horse. Under the Nor- 
man military rule the chief mihtary officer was the "Lord 
High Constable of England," a noble whose power was as 
great as that of the "Constable of France." 

These officers of the court, in time, were empowered to 
hold court themselves, and exercise judicial functions. 
They abused this privilege so much that in Magna Charta, 

9 



(the Great Charter), forced from King John in 
1215, the sheriffs, coroners (corona— a crown), and con- 
stables were forbidden to try law cases, as they had been 
doing. 

The officers in the local courts exercised about the 
same authority as at present. They, when so ordered by 
the judge, seized and sold property, arrested persons 
charged with crime, subpoenaed witnesses, summoned 
jurors, etc. Comparatively httle change has been made, 
for many centuries, in the duties of these officers. 

The Jury.—Perhaps no instrument in the administra- 
tion of law is of more importance than the jury. Only in 
governments of Enghsh origin is the jury system developed 
as we now know it. Other nations have juries, but not so 
untrammeled as the English. 

The credit of originating this mode of settling difficul- 
ties between man and man by the judgment of their peers, 
belongs to that remarkable town-meeting of our Saxon 
ancestors. In these meetings, anyone feehng himseH in- 
jured by another, had the right to stand up and make his 
accusation, supporting it, if he wished, by the evidence of 
others. The accused had the right to formally deny the 
charge and to bring twelve witnesses who would join 
hands and swear to the truthfulness of the accused. In 
this manner originated the right of the jury to determine 
facts, and not law. This constituted a trial by **coin- 
purgation." This method of deciding the guilt or in- 
nocence of the accused by vote of the town -meeting was 
the germ of the jury system. 

King Ethelred, we are told, issued orders to his reeves, 
or sheriffs of the counties, to choose twelve men in each 
Hundred who should bring charges before the Hundred 

10 



CIVIlv GOVJgRNMiigNT. 

Court against all persons suspected of crime. This was 
the germ of the grand jury. 

The Norman kings of England after 1066, introduced a 
modified form of trial by "recognition." In this mode, 
the sheriff, as the king's representative, was ordered to 
take twelve men of the realm and make such investigation 
in case of dispute regarding title to property, etc., as 
might be necessary to enable him to make a just decision. 
Twelve men swearing to the same thing were all that were 
necessary to bring a person to trial, and were at the same 
time witnesses and accusers. 

Trial by "ordeal" had been a form employed in Eng- 
land when it seemed impossible to reach a conclusjpn by 
compurgation. This was founded upon the theory that 
God would always make known the truth by this mode. 
Esfcablished by authority of the Church it was aboHshed by 
the same authority, before Magna Charta. 

Trial by battle was introduced by the Normans. It 
would seem to this warhke race, distinguished for their 
chivalrous honor, to be the proper mode for men whose 
armor never grew rusty, to settle their disputes, the 
combatants appeaUng to God to "show forth the right." 

Magna Charta, the "Palladium of the British constitu- 
tion," made many important changes in the laws govern 
ing the rights of the people. The agreement of twelve 
recognitors, under oath, to the same facts, is the antece- 
dent to the demands of our present law that twelve sworn 
jurors shaU be unanimous in their verdict. But the num- 
ber of grand jurors has been changed from twelve to 
twenty-three, in order that there may be a majority in 
bringing an indictment. One of the most important pro- 
visions incorporated in Magna Charta refers to personal 
liberty, life, and enjoyment of property: "No freeman 

11 





civile GOVJ^RNMl^NT. 

shall be taken, or imprisoned, or disseized, or outlawed, or 
exiled, or any ways destroyed; nor will we go upon him, 
nor will we send upon him, unless by the lawful judgment 
of his peers, or by the law of the land." 

During the reign of Henry IV (1399-1413), it was d 
creed that all witnesses should be examined in open co 
in order that the presiding judges might exclude evidence 
which they deemed improper. While jurors continued to 
be those who had personal knowledge of the case, and 
were still allowed to use this knowledge in addition to that 
brought out in the trial. King Henry's decree did much 
to render the jury of the fifteenth century very similar to 
that of the twentieth. It was during Queen Anne's reign, 
or perhaps a httle later, that jurymen were forbidden to be 
witnesses, and were to determine their verdict only upon 
the evidence presented in open court. 

It is, moreover, repugnant to the minds of all who give 
any attention to the procedure of a grand jury, that any 
one, innocent or guilty, may be still brought to a pseudo- 
trial before that body, before whom only the accuser and 
his witnesses may appear, and the accused be left in ignor- 
ance of any charge impending, until he is the victim of 
arrest. The Star Chamber of England still exists but un- 
der another name. 

The habits and customs of the people gave rise to the 
courts of the township, the hundred, and the shire. The 
abbots of the parish and the lords of the manor exercised 
judicial functions over all the inhabitants of the domain 
belonging to their monastery or castle. The king and his 
council also exercised, as their power increased, the func- 
tions of all classes of courts, especially on the king's part 
that of supreme jurisdiction. The "King's Progress,'/ was 
simply a tour from place to place in his kingdom, during 

-12 



civil/ GOV:^RNMI$NT. 

which he could be approached, on appeal, by the meanest 
of his subjects seeking redress of grievance. It was the 
fore-runner of both the circuit and supreme courts of to- 
day. (Read Walter Scott's "Kenilworth,"— the episode of 
Amy Robsart and Earl of Leicester before Queen Elizabeth, 
as an illustration.) 

Subsequently this custom of the king traveling to hold 
court was modified. Justices from his council were sent 
throughout the kingdom to hear the appeals of the people 
from the judgments of the lower courts, which had by this 
time become in many sections extremely tyrannous. By 
"divine right" was the claim of the king to his throne and 
because he in effect ordained the laws which were adAinis- 
tered in the name of the king, he in time came to be re- 
garded by the people as the source of all laws, even of 
those which had originated from the customs of the people. 

Magna Charta required court to be held four times 
each year in each shire by one of the king's justices. Thus 
in time there remained only the high courts held by judges 
of the king, and courts of justices of the peace chosen by 
the people of the shires, and the jury system. But often 
the independence of juries was lost by the despotic acts of 
the king in compelling jurors to render verdicts acceptable 
to him, under fear of fines, imprisonment or other punish- 
ments. 

INTRODUCTION OF ENGLISH SYSTEM INTO AMERICA. 

It will be seen that we, in America, still preserve much 
of the system of justice and of the machinery of the courts 
which had been handed down to and through our English 
ancestors for the many centuries which have elapsed since 
the Saxon established his tun-skipe upon the soil of Albion. 
These have been modified, as time passed, to suit new con- 

13 



civil/ GOV^RNMilgNT. 

ditions, especially conditions arising only where the peo- 
ple—not a king— are the source of all power. 

Oppression and persecution, though looked upon as un- 
mixed evils, often produce a rich vintage of benefits to the 
human race when Time has made the vineyard ripe for the 
harvest. The repeated, but unsuccessful, attempt of the 
Stuarts and other kings and queens of England to deprive 
them of their rights, only strengthened the tenacity with 
which the men and women of England held to the rights 
which they already enjoyed, and added to the persistence 
with which they demanded others, and stimulated the 
spirit of self-sacrifice which enabled the Puritans and 
Separatists (Pilgrims — also called Nonconformists) to 
abandon the places which had been their homes from 
childhood, and the homes of their ancestors for many 
generations, and to brave the dangers, sufferings and 
privations which must, of necessity, meet those who would 
first stand upon the shores of a wild and unknown land. 
But the love of hberty had become ingrained in their char- 
acters. Their hves had been spent in familiarity with the 
customs, laws and organizations of th^ir native land; and 
these they were about to transplant to a new world. The 
Huguenots of France, also, were ready to seek new homes - 
in a wild land, dreading the savage tribes less, by whom 
they might be attacked, than the still more bigoted savi 
agery of their kindred and former friends. Catholics an^'^ 
Quakers were ready to follow their chosen guides into the 
unknown wilderness, if thereby they could escape persecu- 
tion. The unknown had no terrors for those whose lives 
had been clouded by the horrors of the known. It was 
natural, wise and reasonable that the earliest settlers upon 
the shores of America should adopt for their protection 
such forms of government as they had known. But from 

14 



ClVIiy GOV^RNMIB^NT. 

some stronger and higher development of the governing 
faculty in the Enghsh mind, and wider experience in the 
exercise of governmental forms, the English soon super- 
seded those of the French, Swedes and Dutch. 

AUTHOKIZBD GOVERNMENT IN THE COLONIES. 

The early settlers had organized as towns and parishes 
independently of any authority. For many years they 
were entirely ignored as part of the nations of which they, 
however, claimed to be the subjects. But after the lapse 
of years, in which the extent of the wilderness conquered 
and settled by them had largely increased, governors and 
ofl5,cers of the crown were appointed, and the oppressions 
from which they had fled were again attempted.% The 
common law of England became the basal law of . the 
colonies. 

''There were at the time of the Revolutionary War 
three forms of state government in the American colonies. 
There were, first the Republican colonies, in which the 
governors were elected by the people, as in Rhode Island 
and Connecticut; secondly, the Proprietary colonies, in 
which the governors were appointed by the crown, as in 
Georgia, the two CaroUnas, Virginia, New Jersey, New 
York, Massachusetts and New Hampshire. In the Re- 
publican colonies the governor naturally represented the 
interests of the people, in the Proprietary colonies he was 
the agent of the Pennsor the Calverts, in the Royal colo- 
nies he was the agent of the king. In aU three forms 
there was a representative assembly, which alone could 
impose taxes." (Fiske's Civil Government). 

The Repubhcan colonies became the model for the for- 
mation of the United States Constitution, in which was in- 
corporated the principle that taxation without representa- 
tion in the taxing body is illegal, a principle affirmed at 

15 



civil/ GOVJ^UNME^NT. 



the opening of the Revolution— and which had for hun- 
dreds of years been contended for in the mother country. 

The Repubhcan model also gave rise to the constitu- 
tional division of authority into the three divisions of our 
national government — the Legislative, the Executive and 
the Judicial Departments. 

The various Indian wars occasioned by the struggle be- 
tween England and France to obtain supremacy, not only 
in Europe but in the new world as well, made it evident to 
the colonists that a closer bond should exist between them 
for mutual aid and protection. This led to the Albany 
Convention in which such a umon was formed, and an 
agreement made in regard to taxation as a means of pay- 
ing expenses. The advantage of such a union became 
evident not many years later, when the Stamp Act, and 
the tax on tea, etc., were imposed. History teaches the 
result — overwhelming defeat for England and the found- 
ing of a Nation whose power and influence were destined 
to be felt throughout the world. 

The weakness of the colonial government, which ha( 
held the colonies together only as long as a common dan-| 
ger had threatened the safety of all, showed the represen*! 
tatives — and thinking men of the colonies— the need of 
more perfect union. The Constitution of the United States| 
was the result of their deliberations. In it are maintainec 
the general principles of representation with taxation, thej 
grant to the general government of powers to be exer- 
cised for general need, the reservation to the States oiEl 
all other powers, the separation of Church and State, etc.| 
—all the offspring of old English customs and rights ob-] 
tained by a struggle through many centuries in England, 

la 




THE TOWNSHIP AND COUNTY SYSTEM OF LOCAIi GOVERNMENT. 

The people, who settled New England, came in groups, 
mostly church congregations. Each body was led by the 
pastor. Their chief purpose was to obtain freedom from 
interference in religious matters. They selected a tract of 
land suited to diversified farming. The first public build- 
ing erected was the church. A block-house was usually 
built for protection against the Indians, and for this reason, 
too, the residences were not far apart. These people were 
imbued with the idea of self-government. Therefore it 
is not surprising that the form adopted was the nearest ap- 
proach to that of a pure republic, namely, the town gov- 
ernment (commonly called township), including the annual 
town-meeting, in which, by popular vote, taxes were 
levied for the ensuing year and plans were discussed, and 
adopted or rejected by this assembly of the people. At 
this meeting, also, town oflScers were elected to carry out 
the will of the people until the next meeting. Later, the 
town became the unit of representation. 

In Virginia the county system was established. The 
people who settled there had no previously formed ties to 
bind them together. Nor was their purpose the same as 
that of the New Englanders; they simply planned to gain 
wealth through the culture of tobacco. Through land 
grants, large areas came under the independent control of 
individuals. Homes were far apart. The conditions were 
not favorable for close organization as in New England. 
The county system was more suited to the scattered popu- 
lation. Here the county became the unit of representation. 

In a general way, the movement of population west- 
ward has been along the parallels of latitude. Emigrants 
from New England settled along the northern tier of states, 

17 



CIVII< GOV:gRNM:i^NT. 

and in others joining these on the south, and introduced 
the town system of local government. 

Emigrants from Virginia and other southern states in- 
troduced the county system of government in states to 
their westward. Illinois, whose northern part is west 
of New England, and whose southern part is west of Vir- 
ginia, received emigrants from both sections and both 
systems of local government were introduced. The town 
system is now in operation in about five-sixths of the 
counties of Illinois and others may adopt that system by a 
majority vote. In Missouri, the county system prevails 
in most counties. The town system is gaining ground in 
Nebraska and other western states and there is consider- 
able prospect that it will soon be looked upon with favor 
in the south. 

TECHNICAIi DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TOWN AND TOWNSHIP. 

The word town is properly applied only to an area 
which is under what is commonly known as township gov- 
ernment. It is sometimes called an organized township to 
distinguish it from a congressional township. It is a wrong 
use of the word town to apply it to a village. 

Under the survey system, estabhshed by the govern- 
ment, a great part of the United States is divided into 
tracts six miles square. Each square is called a congres- 
sional township because the system was established by act 
of congress. Each township is divided into thirty-six 
sections, numbered from one to thirty-six, beginning u 
the upper right hand comer and numbering to the left/ 
then passing to the next row beneath and numbering to 
the right, then passing to the next row beneath and num- 
bering to the left, and so on to the thirty -sixth. 

The townships are numbered east and west from a 
principal meridian; and north and south from a base 
line. A principal meridian is a line estabhshed coincident 

18 



CIVIIy GOVBRNM]gNT. 

v/ifch a meridian on the earth's surface. Six of these prin- 
cipal meridians are numbered from one to six, the rest 
have names. Each meridian has its base line crossing it at 
right angles. Lines six miles apart and parallel to the 
meridian are estabhshed and these are called range lines. 
Lines six miles apart and parallel to the base lines are es- 
tabhshed and these are called township lines. In order 
to locate a piece of land its position in the section must be 
designated, the number of the section must be given and 
the township in which the section hes must be designated 
by giving its number north or south of the base line and 
its number east or west of the principal meridian. 

Suppose that a forty acre tract is to be located; it is in 
the southwest corner of section No. 6 and the section is in 
the township which is in the third row of townships north 
of the base line and in the fourth row of townships west of 
the third principal meridian. This forty acres would be 
designated as follows: sw 3^ sw ^, sec. 6 T 3n R. 4w 
3rd P. M. This would read as follows : The southwest 
quarter of the southwest quarter of section number 6, in 
Township 3, north of the base line, and in Range 4 west of 
the 3rd Principal Meridian. ( Find this township on a map 
which shows the survey system and study said map care- 
fully.) 

The area comprised in a Congressional township is of 
convenient size for a civil township ; therefore the areas of 
towns frequently coincide in extent with the areas of Con- 
gressional townships. But, though they may coincide in 
extent, they exist for different purposes; the town (or 
civil township) is for the purpose of government while the 
Congressional township is just a part of a general land 
plat whose purpose is to give greater facility and exactness 
in locating tracts of land. 

19 



civile gov]^rnm:^nt. 

OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

(FIRST PAPER. ) 

1. What is Civics? 

2. Why is government necessary? 

3. Explain the successive steps in the development of 
government. 

4. Give the derivation of the word township. 

5. When and by whom was it introduced into Eng- 
land. 

6. Give the organization and government of the 
shire. 

7. What peculiar features of government did the Nor- 
mans introduce into England? 

8. Of what did the ancient English Parliament consist^ 

9. What is the source of American law? 

10. Give history of justices of the peace. 

11. Explain how we get the names constable ai 
sheriff from England. 

12. What is a jury? 

13. What were some of the ancient methods of set 
tling disputes? 

14. How was the EngUsh system introduced int^ 
America? 

15. What forms of government were there in tl 
colonies at the time of the Revolutionary War? 

16. To which kind is the constitution of the U. S. most 
indebted? 

17. Explain the settlement of New England. 

18. Contrast this with settlement of Virginia. 

19. What can you say of the township and county 
systems in the west? 

20. Explain the survey system. 

20 



DIDACTICS. 

(FIRST PAPER.) 

"Knowledge is power, bufc like any other power, it is 
only valuable when imparted to others." 

INTRODUCTORY. 
In revising the course in Didactics the order of the 
topics has been reversed, bringing the History of Educa- 
tion, first, to be followed in regular order by Educational 
Pschology, Didactics Proper and Practical Ped- 
agogy. This order will be helpful to the teacher i# that 
when he begins the study of the practical details of teach- 
ing he wiU have in mind the development of education 
from its beginning and the methods and devices employed 
by the great educational pioneers of the world. The course 
will be somewhat lengthened and made to meet the needs 
of inexperienced teachers, as well as furnishing a good 
review for experienced teachers. 

PART I. 

HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 

The physician before he treats a patient needs to know 
something of that patient's past, he finds out the hereditary 
tendency, the environments and the mode of Hfe. With 
these things in mind he feels better prepared to treat the 
patient intelligently. So the teacher needs not only to 
know the child but the history of education and the 
methods of the past. The purpose, therefore, of this part 
of the work is to make the teacher acquainted with the 
development of the human mind from the remotest times, 
and to make him familiar with the methods and systems 
of education of the various important nations of the 
world. 



m 



DIDACTICS. 

ORIENTAL EDUCATION. 

In the Eastern countries we find an entirely different 
spirit in education than in Western countries. In the East 
the Ejng, or Ruler, is absolute, in the West the King, if 
there be one, is hmited. In the former the underlying 
principle in education is subjection to authority, in the latter 
the development of the individual. With the one the 
individual counts for nothing, in the other -for all. If 
we bear this difference constantly in mind we shall find it 
much easier to understand the different systems of educa- 
tion. This principle runs through the educational systems 
of China, India, Persia and Egypt, although these systems 
differ widely in other respects. 

CHINA. 

China, which occupies a large part of the Eastern 
world and contains no small fraction of the world^s popu- 
lation, first claims our attention. These people possess 
many admirable traits, they are industrious and economical, 
love their children and parents, but on the other hand they 
are hypocritical, tyrannical and in many instances dishonest. 

In education as in other matters they care more for 
appearances than for real worth. They like to have a 
courteous and decorous manner and to do everything in a 
fixed ceremonial way. They have no hope of life beyond 
the grave and know no spiritual delights. Although this 
nation is very old, the habits, social customs, government 
and business ways are the same as they were three thousand 
years ago, and through it civilization has taken no forward 
steps. As a people and a nation they chng with tenacity 
to their traditions and resist all inroads of Western civil- 
ization. 

The Chinese Classics, compiled or written by Con- 
fucius form the basis of Chinese education. These treat 

2 



DIDACTICS. 

of the social and political life of the people, filial and 
parental love, and the cardinal virtues. Among these 
may be mentioned charity, strict justice, rectitude of 
heart and mind, sincerity and the conformity to 
traditions. 

Disobedience to parents is considered a very serious 
offence. So much time must be spent on these classics 
and in acquiring the art of Reading and Writing, which is 
very difficult, that little time is left for such studies as 
Geography, History, Arithmetic and Modern Science. 
The whole system tends to preserve and perpetuate the 
traditions of the ancestors, is a memory cramming 
process and in no way aims at the development df the 
individual or the human faculties. 

Within very recent years, through the influence of Li 
Hung Chang and the push of Western nations, the nation 
is showing signs of advancement. Railroads are being 
built, and the laws are being rewritten in accordance with 
Western ideas of justice. 

INDIA. 

The wealth of India has been eagerly sought by nations 
from remote times. The Greeks, Portuguese, Dutch and 
English, one after another, have gone after it. Each in turn 
stamped its influence upon the government and in a slight 
degree affected the social life of the inhabitants of India. 

Two things characterize Hindoo or Indian society — 
their system of castes and their religion. By the 
caste system were constituted heriditary classes, in which 
the rank, vocation and standing were fixed, not by free wiU, 
but by birth. Once a servant, always a servant, was and is 
the unchanging law. There are four of these castes, and in 
them we must look to find the determining influences in 
Indian education. In the highest caste belong the Brah- 



DIDACTICS. 

mans, or holy teachers. In the second caste, which is 
called the Kshatsujas, are to be found the soldiers and 
ruling classes. In the third caste, called Vaisyas, are the 
traders and farmers of the land, while in the fourth caste, 
called Sudras, are the servants of the other three classes. 
Each of the three higher castes enjoys special privileges 
and rights; the lowest caste is practically without rights. 

By their religion, which was purely Pantheistic, 
the thoughts and activities of the youth were restricted to 
the same channels in which they had flowed for centuries, 
and by no effort could the rank of any one be changed. 

The Brahmans were supposed to possess the learning 
of the nation, and to them was entrusted the education of 
the youth. From about the age of six the children of the 
three higher classes were required to attend school, which 
was conducted by a Brahman in the open air, except in 
bad weather, when a thatched shed was used for a school 
house. Here they were taught reading, writing and 
arithmetic. Their first copy-book consisted of a sand 
bed, on which they scratched with sticks, then upon leaves 
of trees, and finally upon dry leaves with ink; the process 
was a slow one. The one department in which they made 
progress was mathematics. In all others they were far be- 
hind western nations. 

A higher course of instruction, somewhat similar to 
ours, was carried on, and a period of twelve years was re- a I 
quired to complete it. This course was open to the three | j 
upper castes, but as a rule was pursued only by the Brah- 
mans. The children of the second and third caste took 
courses adapted to their particular calling. 

What has been said apphes to boys only, for the posi- 
tion of women and likewise of girls was one of absolute 
subjection to m£^n, and she had no share, whatever, in edu- 
cation. 



DIDACTICS. 

Much of the Brahmans' time was taken up in im- 
pressing on the minds of the pupils the distinction of the 
castes and especially the superiority of their own. 

The Brahmans were a lazy indolent class, expecting and 
exacting much deference and consideration from all others. 

The position of teacher, filled by a Brahman of at least 
fifty years of age, was an exalted one. From the children 
he received more respect and consideration than was given 
to parents. His pay was purely by contribution, but so 
strong was his influence on the people that his salary was 
very large. It was considered beneath the dignity of a 
Brahman to work for a fixed salary. % 

Thus we see that, in a system of education like the In- 
dian, which is based on the caste system and Pantheistic 
religious ideas, and which teaches a child that he must re- 
main forever in the condition in which he was bom, no 
progress could be made. This system of education has been 
well called the non-progressive. 

PERSIAN EDUCATION. 

The Persian system of education is superior to those of 
China and India. About six hundred years before Christ 
Zoroaster founded a system of religion, in which he recog- 
nized a "good" and a "bad." To the one belonged all 
things which tended to the comfort and happiness of man; 
to the other all those things which brought about opposite 
results. The symbol of the good was "Mght," of the bad 
"darkness." From this the education took a moral trend. 

The women, though holding a very subordinate place 
in the nation, were entrusted with the care of the children 
until they were seven years old, from which time on they 
were considered as belonging to the state. 

Around the seat of -justice was a large market place 
divided into four parts. One of these was for boys imder 

5 



DIDACTICS. 

fifteen, another for youth, and a third for men in their 
prime, and a fourth for the aged. With -the exception of 
the aged all were required to come to this place at five in 
the morning and remain until evening. Here they were 
instructed in their duties as citizens and in administering 
justice. Until the age of fifteen the education was chiefly 
moral and physical. 

The plan of instruction was to hold court over boys. 
Boys were accused by their fellows of some offense, and 
were then tried and had justice meted out to them. 

These trials or schools were in charge of the magi or 
priestly caste who had possession of all the learning, and 
under whom the kings had to study. 

This system of education was one sided inasmuch as it 
neglected the intellectual and subordinated the individuals 
to the state. 

JEWISH EDUCATION. 

This nation has and always wiU have a special interest 
to the student for it was the duty of the Jews to preserve 
and hand down to the succeeding centuries a knowledge 
of the true God. Over this nation God watched and 
through them gave us the Great Teacher. For eighteen 
hundred years these people have been without a nation an 
yet through all conditions and under trying ordeals the; 
have preserved their identity as a nation, their religion 
and social customs. While perhaps the chief reason for ; 
this is to be found in the natural endowments of the people, 
yet a part must be attributed to their education, which was 
theocratic. Jt aimed to make men faithful followers of the 
living God, and although it is one sided, yet it emphasize 
a very if not the most important duty of Ufe. By it me: 
were prepared to die, which after aU is the end of hfe. 
the early period of Jewish history the education was esse: 

6 




DIDACTICS. 

fcially domestic; that is, it was carried on in the homes and 
not in public schools. This method continued up to the 
birth of Christ, when the idea of pubhc education began to 
spread and in the year 64 each town was required to support 
a school. Discipline among the primitive Jews was harsh, 
as is shown by the familiar quotation, *'He that spareth 
his rod hateth his son," but in later times it became 
milder and corresponds to that in our own schools. 

The child entered school at the age of six. He was 
taught Reading and Writing, some IsTatural History and a 
great deal of Astronomy and Geometry. The first book 
put into the hands of the children was the Bible, and in 
teaching reading the master interspersed moral less<)lis. He 
sought to bring about a correct pronunciation and spent 
much time in making his explanations, 

like the Hindoo teachers, the Jewish teachers received 
great respect from their pupils and were held in higher 
esteem than parents, for says the Talmud: "If your teacher 
and your father have need of your assistance, help your 
teacher before helping your father, for the latter has given 
you only the life of this world, while the former has given 
you the life of the world to come." 

A teacher was required to be married and great impor- 
tance was attached to maturity on the part of the teacher, 
as is shown by the following quotation: "He who learns 
of a young master is like a man who eats green grapes, and 
drinks wine fresh from the press; but he who has a master 
of mature years is hke a man who eats ripe and delicious 
grapes and drinks old wine." 

Gentleness, patience, unselfishness and kindness were 
considered attributes of the good teacher. 

The Jewish system of education had many strong 
points, but the attitude of the Jewish people toward the 



DIDACTICS. 

rest of humanity showed a mean, narrow spirit, which in a 
degree is still retained by the race, 

EGYPT. 

Egypt possesses the oldest civilization in the world. 
Every indication points to considerable intellectual devel- 
opment many centuries before Christ. Of all the oriental 
countries Egypt is the one^ in which intellectual culture 
seems to have reached the highest point, but only in the 
highest or priestly caste. The law-givers and philosophers 
of ancient nations went to Egypt to study. For this pur- 
pose it was visited by such men as Plato and Solon. 

Like India, Egypt was divided into castes, the highest 
and most influential of which was the priestly caste. To 
this caste was intrusted the education of the people. The 
lower classes received a very elementary training. Those 
destined to business hf e were taught reading, writing and 
arithmetic, while the rest learned from their parents the 
manual occupations to be followed through hfe. The higher 
castes received a more hberal education, consisting of a 
course of study, including language, mathematics, science 
and religion. The highest instruction was open to the priest- 
hood alone. Reverence for the priesthood and for the tra- 
ditions handed down by the fathers was carefully taught. 
In 1102 B. Cm Psammetichus concluded a commercial treaty 
with the Grecians, and from this date Greek culture 
began to have its influence on Egyptian education. 

On the whole, it is just to say, in concluding the review 
of Oriental education, that it was in the main non-pro- 
gressive. It extended its privileges to special classes, it 
placed woman in a subordinate position, failed to take into 
consideration the development of the individual, and 
in no case produced well balanced development. For the 
most part the great masses of the people lived under a re- 
ligious, traditional or poUtical despotism. 

8 



DIDACTICS. 

ANCIE^ CLASSICAL. 

From the Oriental we must pass to a consideration of 
the educational systems of Greece and Rome. These two 
nations played an important role in the civilization of the 
world,*and we owe much to them. Their influence is still 
to be seen in our language, our schools and our culture. 

GREECE. 

To Greece, more than to Rome or any other nation, the 
world has turned for culture. Here has been found the 
highest creations in art and hterature. So in education 
modern nations have developed their higher spiritual life 
under the influence of Grecian antiquity. 

During the heroic age, Grecian education was patri- 
archal. The father trained his sons in the manly arts and 
virtues; the mother taught her daughters the duties of the 
household. Love of parents was included in both. 

Later on, however, there was a sharp contrast between 
the systems of Sparta and Athens, the two leading and rival 
cities. Nine hundred years before Christ, Lycurgus pre- 
pared a constitution for Sparta, in which he aimed to ehm- 
inate many of the evils which threatened the city. Among 
other things he struck at luxury, by requiring all people to 
eat at a common table and to partake of the same food. 
He subordinated the people to the state, and hence the 
education was such as to strengthen the state. As war was 
the chief occupation of the men, the education was chiefly 
physical and such as tended to make soldiers of men. 

Each new born babe was taken before a set of judges, 
and if it seemed hkely to be weakly, it was put to death. 
At the age of seven a boy passed out from under the care 
of his natural guardians into the public educational estab- 
lishments. There he was subjected to vigorous discipline, 
his food was coarse and meagre, and from the age of twelve, 

9 



■im 



DIDACTICS. 

he had to provide his own food and bed, and everything 
was done to produce strong men inured to hardship. Moral 
training, however, was not neglected, because it was felt 
that dissipation of any kind would weaken the man. Obed- 
ience to parents, reverence for customs and respect for the 
aged were carefully taught. 

ATHENS. 

As Lycurgus was the law-giver of Sparta, so was Solon 
of Athens. The laws which he gave to the city were 
in the main wise. They encouraged education, and abol- 
ished the unnatural sale of children by parents. Solon 
placed physical and intellectual education on the same 
footing. "Above all else," says the law-giver, "children 
ought to learn to swim and to read." Nevertheless it seems 
that the body was the chief concern of the state. The 
state directed the gynmasia, while the organizing and man- 
aging of schools of literature and arts was left to private 
enterprise. 

THE ATHENIAN SYSTEM. 

An Athenian's education lasted about eighteen years, 
divided into three periods. 

The first period covered the first six years of the boy's 
life. During this time he was under the care of his mother 
or a nurse. Strange it is that the Greeks should deem the 
mother so unworthy of education and yet give up to her 
the entire training of the child at its most plastic age. 

At the age of seven he was placed under the care of a 
pedagogue, who looked after the rest of his education. This 
pedagogue was usually an aged and trusted slave. Con- 
ducted by this pedagogue he attended either the grammar 
school or the school for music. At the grammar school, 
which was often conducted in the open air, he learned 
reading, writing and mythology. 

10 



DIDACTICS. 

In teaching reading the "ABO" method was employed, 
while in teaching writing a wax tablet and steel stylus were 
employed. As soon as these studies were well enough in 
hand he began to study Arithmetic, Grammar and Litera- 
ture. Among the first reading books were Homer's Iliad 
and Odyssey. 

At the school for music the boy was first taught to sing, 
and then to play upon the stringed instruments, the lyre 
and the cithara. The Greeks placed great value in music 
and made much use of it in the actual work of hfe. With 
it they promulgated their laws and fulfilled their religious 
duties. Plato and Aristotle looked upon the harmony and 
rythm of music as inspiring the soul with a love o4 order, 
regularity and as a soothing of the passions. 

At about twelve years of age the sons of the poorer 
classes gave up their studies to learn a trade, while those 
of the wealthier classes took up more advanced work. 
Rhetoric, Philosophy, Art and Higher Mathematics were 
included in such a course. 

PHYSICAL AND MORAL EDUCATION. 

The subject of Athenian education can not be passed 
without touching on the physical. As mentioned above the 
state seemed to concern itself more in the care of the body 
than of the mind. Teachers in charge of the gymnasia 
were elected by the people each year. In addition to these 
public teachers the boy often had a private physical in- 
structor much as do the sons of our millionaires at the 
present time. They were taught to swim, to hurl the javelin 
and the discus, to run, to wrestle and to jump. 

Moral education among the Athenians was neglected, 
there being no real religious basis for such education. This 
was in part supphed by music, which as above described 
nlayed an important part in education. The Athenian edu- 

11 






DIDACTICS. 

cation had as its central idea tlie ''beautiful," and wMle 
we can not accept tins as the end of education, we must 
grant that in this phase of education they set the pace for 
succeeding ages. 

THE LEADERS. 

One can not leave the Greeks without at least briefly- 
considering the three great leaders of Greek education. 
These were Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. These men cov- 
ered most thoroughly the fields of philosophical and edu- 
cational thought. It is hard for the modern scholar to 
originate anything new in education. Now and then some 
one thinks he has found a new idea, but he has only to give 
it to the public to learn through others that Plato or Aris- 
totle had thought and expressed the same idea, 

SOCEATES— THE SOCRATIC METHOD. 

Socrates was a man who spent his life in teaching, and 
that by an original method which has preserved his name 
and wiU continue to keep it in the minds of men and women 
as long as there shall be schools. He questioned aU whom 
he met either at the gymnasium or in the pubhc streets. 
He led the person with whom he talked to set forth his 
ideas, and then by skillfully questioning him led him to 
recognize the truth which he had in mind. Out of this art 
of questioning has come the modem developing method. 
He seldom used the method of direct teaching. 

In his teaching Socrates had two ends— first, to refute 
error and falsehood, and second, to give birth to new ideas. 
To secure the first he used what is known as the SocratiCr3 
"irony." If a response to a question contained an errorj 
he did not call attention to the error, but pretended to es^ 
pouse it; then by questions he forced the person to develoj 
his opinions and display fuUy his folly, and finally hi 
brought him face to face with the consequences, which wer^ 

12 



DIDACTICS. 

80 absurd that lie ended by confessing Ms error. To attain 
the second end he appealed to the innate powers of his 
auditor, believing the normal human mind capable of dis- 
covering truth through its own energies. He gently led 
him by easy steps to the opinion he wished to inculcate. 
This method could only be used in such studies as grammar, 
mathematics and ethics, but not in geography, history and 
the hke. 

Examples of the Socratic method may be found in the 
writings of his pupils, especially in Xenophon's memora- 
bilia. Socrates has left us httle in the form of writings, 
and we are forced to rely on the writings of others for our 
information of this great man. 

Plato, a student of Socrates, on the contrary wrote 
much, and in his "Republic" has left us his ideas on educa- 
tion. Of this book Rousseau says: "It is the finest treatise 
on education ever written." A careful study of the same 
reveals many ideas which are just now being advocated by 
such leaders as O'Shea and Stanley Hall. However, it' is 
merely an ideal creation, and while it contains much that is 
wise and wholesome, yet it contains much that is impracti- 
cal and impossible. He sacrifices the individual and the 
family to the state. Children were not to recognize their 
parents, and women became so much like men that they 
were to receive the same gymnastic training and were to 
take part in war just as men. He divided the society of his 
ideal state into three castes — laborers and artisans, war- 
riors, and magistrates. 

To the first class he gave no education, to the second 
he gave an education consisting of music and gymnastics, 
while the third class were to be educated in all the sciences 
and in metaphysics and philosophy. 

However, he modified his caste system by requiring that 
a competent of a lower class be elevated to a higher and 
vice versa. 

13 



DIDACTICS. 

He looked upon music as forimng the soul and there- 
fore gave it the highest place in education. None but 
the robust were allowed to live in this ideal state. 

The weak, the feeble, and deformed had no place, and 
while Plato did not in so many words order them to be 
killed, he did what amounted to the same thing by ordering 
them to be "exposed". In his scheme of education he 
makes two notable omissions. He gives no place to natural 
science and none to history. Plato gave a place to moral 
education, but did not think that rehgion would make men 
moral. He relied more on art to accomphsh this end. He, 
therefore, gave a high place in his system to the "Beauti- 
ful." According to him "the soul rises to the good through 
the beautiful." Plato was not alone in giving a high place 
to art and the beautiful. The Greeks as a nation constantly 
connected moral education with the beautiful. 

In the "laws", the work of his old age, Plato modified 
some of the ideas advanced in his RepubUc. In the laws 
he defines education thus: "A good education is that 
which gives to the body and to the soul all the beauty and 
all the perfection of which they are capable." 

ARISTOTLE. 

The third member of this famous trio is Aristotle, a 
student of Plato and the preceptor of Alexander the Great. 
Because of his great knowledge and his attainments he 
excelled Plato in the clearness with which he looked into 
questions of education. Unhke Plato he sought to vindi- 
cate the rights of the family and the individual, and he 
relinquishes to the parents the right to educate children up 
to the age of seven. JProm this age the care of educating 
children belongs to the state. Aristotle divides education 
into three parts,— physical, moral and scientific, but like ] 

14 



DIDACTICS. 

Plato he makes his education for the few, leaving the great 
mass of the people without any of its benefits. 

The systems of education of Socrates, Plato and 
Aristotle have done more for succeeding ages than for the 
Greeks. In them we find the first attempt to formulate a 
doctrine of education based on psychology, ethics and 
politics. 

ROMAN EDUCATION. 

In Rome, the city which aspired to rule the world and 
which has given us so many laws and much in the science 
of government, we would expect to find a different sort of 
education than in Greece. • But as in Greece we have noted 
two essentially different systems of education, t^ one 
coming from Sparta, the other from Athens, so in Rome 
we find two systems. The one during the republican period 
modeled after the Spartan type, the other during the time 
of the empire resembled the Athenian education. 

In Rome **tlie beautiful" occupies a less prominent 
place than in the Athenian system, while the practical is 
given a place of importance. Here we find woman raised 
somewhat nearer to her proper sphere. The mother had 
entire charge of the education of her children until they 
were seven years old, when they began to go to school, 
where they received training in reading, writing and arith- 
metic. The last because it was thought to be useful in the 
business affairs of life. Discipline was severe, great 
respect was exacted by the teachers, the rod being employed 
quite frequently. This elementary training ended at the 
age of twelve. After this Greek, grammar, rhetoric and 
oratory were pursued. Much attention was given to the 
last named because through it men hoped to attain political 
preferment. At the age of sixteen the young Roman 
asgumed the dress of manhood and determined his future 

15 



DIDACTICS. 

occupation. Agriculture, arms, law, politics, and oratory 
were open to him. Having chosen his calling, his studies 
were directed along the line of his future work. From this 
brief sketch we see much in Roman education to be com- 
mended, but there are at least two things to criticise. No 
place is given to moral nor to physical education. The 
pubhc schools were not patronized by the better classes 
and consequently the class system of Oriental countries 
was fostered. 

LEADERS. 

In Rome we do not find great leaders in education, as 
we did in Greece. This is not because there were no gTcat 
scholars in Rome, but because the Romans had no taste 
for speculative philosophy. They preferred to devote 
their time and thoughts to the practical sciences, as the law 
in which they excelled and became the teachers of the 
world. Pedagogy was not looked upon by the Romans as 
a practical subject and it appealed to them only as a dis- 
interested science. 

Among the Romans who may be mentioned in connec- 
tion with education are Cicero, Seneca and Quintilian. 
Oicero represents the best type of his age. He was an 
orator and philosopher. In his works on friendship 
old age, and his oration on the Poet Archias, we get his 
best thoughts on hf e and education. Seneca Kved at a httle 
later date and his teachings are for the most part in accord 
with the scriptures. Quintihan, the rhetorician, laid gre; 
stress on the quahflcations of the teacher. He consider 
the moral side as well as the mental, and maintained that 
in deahng with pupils, differences of disposition should be 
taken into account, and also that the multipUcation o: 
studies tended toward superficiality and hence should 
discouraged. 

16 




DIDACTICS. 

PYTHAGORAS. 

Before leaving the classic nations, mention must be 
made of the educational influence of Pythagoras, who lived 
in tiie fifth century before Christ. He founded a system of 
education in which the central idea was harmony. He 
recognized the harmony in nature and sought to develop it 
in man. He founded a school in which the chief subjects 
studied were Mathematics, Physics, Geography, Metaphy- 
sics and Medicine. He placed special stress on Mathemat- 
ics, which he held "as the noblest science." EQs method of 
instruction was dogmatic and arrogant, and it is due to the 
fact that he decided questions simply by his own assertion 
that we have to-day the expression *'an ipse dixit.'' His 
school exerted much influence in Southern Italy, where it 
was established. 

In the system of Pythagoras religion formed the basis 
of moral action. After mature deliberation he came to the 
conclusion that there was one God, one Universal Ruler, 
and that it was man's duty to serve this Ruler. Keligious 
ceremonies occupied a prominent place in his school. 
Services were held morning, noon and night without fail. 
One of the beliefs of Pythagoras was the transmigration of 
souls of deceased men into lower animals. His system 
showed a partiaUty to physical training, was strict in 
morals and discipline and aristocratic in its tendencies. 
It was due to this last part that the school came into dis- 
favor, and finally came into conflict with the people of 
Crotina where the school was located. Finally the build- 
ing was set on fire and it is believed that Pythagoras him- 
self perished in the flames. 

^ EDUCATION AFTER THE BIRTH OF CHRIST. 

In all the systems of education preceding the birth of 
Christianity there was something lacking. Philosophers 

17 



>^ 



DIDACTIC8. 

had been searching for the - triith, and while some of them 
approached it, no one ever grasped and fully demonstrated 
it. Education had been merely a training for service to 
the state; man had been looked upon as belonging, soul and 
body, to society. Now all was changed, for with the com- 
ing of the Great Teacher came the first recognition of the 
full dignity and importance of the individual in a system 
of education. Prom now on a person might ber4ield 
accountable to the state in a physical sense, but his soul 
belonged to himself and with it he owed allegiance to God 
only. The advent of Christianity did yet more, it pro- 
claimed the equality of all men in the eyes of God and that 
the same destiny was f ojr all. Thus rich and poor stood on 
the same level and casste were practically made impossi- 
ble. Indeed, the influence of Christ upon education cannot 
be estimated. To enter into a discussion of His life and 
work is not our present purpose, but it may be said that 
not one of the ancient sages can be compared with Him. ' 

This great principle of individual or personal freedom 
did not, however, at first bear fruit in any system of educa- 
tion. Several reasons can be given for this. First, Chris- 
tianity addressed itself to barbarous peoples who could not 
attain at once intellectual and moral culture. Then, too, 
there was opposition to Christianity, and a bitter struggle 
was necessary to overcome the diflaculties in its way, so 
that little or no time was left for the study of education, 
and finally, owing to the mysterious tendencies of Chris- 
tianity, it was not thought suitable for a practical system 
of education. 

THE EABLY LEADERS. 

Of the men who made famous the beginning of Chris- 
tianity, only one need claim our attention in connection 
with education. The letters of St. Jerome on the educa- 
tion of girls are said to form the most valuable educational 
papers of the first centuries of Christianity. 

18 



DIDACTICS. 

OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

1. Why should a teacher study the History of Educa- 
tion? 

2. What was the underlying principle of Education in 
Eastern countries? In Western countries? 

3. What forms the basis of Chinese Education? 

4. What modem influences are now working in China? 

5. What is meant by "caste system"? 

6. In which nations did it prevail? 

7. What effect did the Pantheistic religion have upon 
the youth? 

8. What was the position of woman in Indian Educa- 
tion? 

9. What were the duties of the Brahmans? 

10. Who was Zoroaster? What did he do? 

11. What was the chief characteristic of Persian 
Education? 

12. Who were the "Magri"? What were their duties? 

13. Why are the Jewish people of special interest to us? 

14. In what country do we find a "priestly caste"? 
16. Describe the Spartan system of Education. Who 

was the Spartan law giver? 

16. Describe the Athenian system. Compare it with 
that of Sparta. 

17. Who was Solon? What did he do? Who did the 
teaching in Athens? 

18. Discuss briefly, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle. 

19. How did the Roman system differ from the Grecian 
•yetem? 

20. Describe briefly the school of Pythagoras. 

19 



f^ 



ALGEBRA. 

(FIRST PAPER.) 

"The true university of the day is a collection of good 
books, well read and carefully digested." 

HISTORY OF ALGEBRA. 

Algebra, that branch of mathematics in which quan- 
tities are represented by letters and numerals, and the 
relations and operations by signs, was introduced into 
Europe about 1100 by the Moors. 

The oldest known work on this science was written by 
Diophantus, a Greek mathematician of Alexandria, Egypt, 
about the fourth century of the Christian era. The knowl- 
edge of the science was confined to Italy for nearly three 
centuries before its introduction into Spain. Until early in 
the Sixteenth Centurj'- science was hmited to equations of 
the second degree. About 1545 "Ars Magna" was pub- 
lished by Jerome Cardan, who gave solutions of the third 
degree by what is known to mathematicians as the Formula 
of Cardan. He also invented the distinction between pos- 
itive, negative, and irrational solutions. 

About the same time the signs plus (+), minus ( — ), 
and the radical (i/), were invented by Stiefelius, a German, 
thereby rendering the formulae much simpler. In 1552 
Robert Recorde first used the sign of equaUty (=) as it 
now exists, in a work called "The Whetstone of Witte." 
Rapid progress has been made since these dates in extend- 
ing the operations and applications of this science. 

The name. Algebra, is of Arabic origin, from Al- Jabr, 
meaning "the reduction," a noun derived from "Gabra or 
Jabara" signifying "to bind," hence, "the reducing of parts 
to a whole." 



AI^GIgBRA. 

HINTS TO STUDENTS. 

Mathematics is an exact science, hence, a student of 
any branch of this study should endeavor to obtain a 
thorough and exact knowledge of the principles involved 
in his work. In the following outhne be careful to master 
all definitions and rules which may be given you. Daily 
repetition in writing or orally until they become, as we 
may say, imbedded in the brain, will be an efficient mode 
of securing this result. 

In preparing work to be forwarded for inspection, be 
careful to separate each portion of the work clearly and 
distinctly from that which f oUows. In solutions of problems 
each separate step should be written below that which pre- 
cedes, leaving at the left a margin of about one inch. 
Problems should be separated from each other by one blank 
Hne, and the number of the problem should be placed in the 
marginal column. The work should be written in ink, 

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS. 

1. Algebra is that branch of mathematics in which 
quantities are represented by letters and the operations 
performed by signs. These letters and signs are called 
symbols. 

It treats of the equation, and is chiefly occupied in ex- 
plaining its nature and the methods of transforming and re- 
ducing it, and in exhibiting the manner of using it as an 
instrument for mathematical investigation. 

Algebra is sometimes called the science of the Equa- 
tion (e-qua-shun). The whole province of the relations 
of quantity, continuous or discontinuous number, is covered 
by Algebra, so far as the equation can be made the instru- 
ment of investigation. Much, therefore, of what is found 
in our Arithmetic can be more expeditiously treated by Al- 

2 



gebra. Such are the subjects of Ratio, Proportion, the 
Progression, Percentage, Alligation, etc. 

It must be remembered that Mathematics is the science 
of quantity. Quantity is anything that can be measured. 
A measure of a quantity is a unit of that quantity, usually 
established by law,^at least by custom. 

Notation.— In Arithmetic, number-symbols repre- 
senting units of quantity are the Arabic numerals, 1, 2, 3, 
etc. In Algebra, letters of the alphabet, in addition to the 
figures of Arithmetic, are used to represent numbers; i. e., 
quantities in Algebra are expressed by letters « or by a 
combination of letters and figures; as, o, 6, 5a, Qo^ 7y, 
etc. Any values may be represented by the letters of 
the alphabet. They may not, and generally do not, have 
the same value in any two or more problems in the same 
exercise, but a letter should be imderstood to have the same 
value throughout a given problem. Usually the first letters 
of the alphabet are used to express known quantities, and 
the last letters those which are unJknown^ i. e., those 
whose values are to be found. 

Note.— Those hegianing this subject are generally bothered or con- 
cerned to know what the letters, as *, ^, etc., represent — they can not 
understand what they mean. If this troubles you do not worry about it; 
it will be perfectly plain to you after you have employed letters a few 
times in the solution of problems later on in the work. Keep this thought 
in mind,— the letters employed have no fixed numerical value of them- 
selves; any letter may represent any number, and the same letter 
may be used to represent different numbers at pleasure; however, the 
same letter must stand for the same number throughout the same 
problem. 

The terms used in Algebra have practically the same 
meaning as when they are employed in Arithmetic. The 
relations of quantities, and the operations to be performed, 
are expressed by the same signs as in Arithmetic. 

Plus (-I-), (Latin— more) is the sign of addition, and 
indicates that the quantities between which it is placed ar© 

3 



to be added. 4-|-5 is read 4 plus 5 and indicates that the 
number 5 is to be added to the number 4; a-\-b is read a 
plus 5— the number b is added to the number a. 

Minus (— ), (Latin— less) is the sign of subtraction, 
and signifies when placed between two quantities that the 
second is to be taken from the first. It is a substitute for 
the word subtract. 6 — 3 is read 6 mintis 3, and indicates 
that the number 3 is to be subtracted from the number 6; 
a—b is read a minus 5, and indicates that the number a is 
to be subtracted from the number d. 

An S- shaped symbol placed horizontally (^*— ^) is some- 
times used to signify the difference between two quantities. 
a ^— ^ b is read, the difference between a and b. This sign 
differs from the preceding in that it does not indicate which 
of the quantities is to be taken as the subtrahend, while the 
minus sign requires us to consider the quantity before which 
it is placed as the subtrahend. 

The sign of multipHcation, ordinarily used, is an inclined 
cross, thus, (X)» The multiplication of Uteral factors may 
be indicated by a dot, (.) placed between them, or by simply 
writing them consecutively. Mere contact indicates multi- 
cation; thus, ab means a multiphed by 6; it is read a times 6. 

Division of two quantities may be indicated in three 
ways; first, as a fraction, thus, -^^; second, thus, Or^b; 
third, thus, a/5. Each of the above is read a divided by 6. 
It is erroneous to read the first form, a over 6, as is often 
done. It should be noted that any of the above operations 
is algebraically complete when the two letters are con- 
nected by the proper sign; in the expression a+6, the 
addition of 6 to a is completed by connnecting 6 to a by 
means of the sign -f-j ^^^ tihe expression a-f-ft is the sum 
of a and 6; so it is in subtracting b from a, a — b is the dif 
ference between a and b, etc. 



AI^GBBRA. 

The sign of equality is made thus, (=), and is read 
equals or equal to. When placed between two quantities 
the entire expression is called an Equation. The terms at 
the left of the sign is called the first member of the equation, 
that upon the right is called the second member. Thus, a=b 
means that the quantity before the sign is equal to the 
quantity after it; it is read a equals 6, or a is equal to 6. 

The sign of inequality is made thus, (> or <), and is 
read greater than, or less than. The greater number is 
always to be placed in the opening, thus, 8>6, which is read 
eight is greater than five. 

A Residual is the expression of the difference of two 
quantities, as a — &. * 

A Reciprocal of a number is the expression of 1 divided 
by that number, as -i— Every numerical fraction whose 
numerator is 1 is the reciprocal of its denominator. 

A Coefficient shows how many times a number is taken 
as a part, and is always placed at the left. It may be either 
numeral or literal. If no Coefficient is written 1 is under- 
stood. Thus, in 3a, 3 is a numeral coefficient of a; in ax, a 
is the literal coefficient of cc; in 5ca;, 5c is a mixed coefficient 
of a;; a means la; xy means Ixy. 

An Exponent is written at the right and above the level 
of a number to show how many times it is taken as a factor. 
Thus, a^ signifies aXaXci. If no exponent is written 1 is 
understood. Thus, a is the same as a^ , which denotes that 
a is taken once as a factor; a*-* denotes that it is taken twice 
as a factor, etc. 

Caution.— Avoid confusingr the coefficient and exponent in their 
tiaes. Thus, in 3ff, 3 is the coefficient; in a3, 3 is the exponent. In the 
first instance, a is multiplied by 3; in the second, a is taken three times 
as a factor. 

The Radical sign (y), placed over or before a quantity 

indicates that its root is to be found. The index of the root 



iw»!'.. 



AI<GBBRA. 

is placed in the opening of the radical sign. When none i| 
written the second or square root is understood. 
Ex: ■/ 8 indicates the square root. 
■^ 8 indicates the cube root. 

Note.— This sign is a modification of the Italian "r," the initial 
the I«atin word "radix," signifying- a root. 

The sign of Aggregation is the parenthesis ( ), th| 
brace \ |-,the bracket [ ], or the vinculum 
These indicate that the quantities included are to be coi 
sidered as one. These signs mean that the included quan| 
titles are taken collectively, or as one quantity. Thi 
S(^+2/)> 25+2/ X 5, 5[a;+2/] and 5|a;-f^| each denote that the 
sum of X and y is multiphed by 5. 

A Power is the product of two or more equal factors! 
thus, a^ represents aXct, that is, the second power of a. 

A Root is one of the equal factors of a Power. In the 
above the root is a. 

Factors of a number are the quantities multiplied to^^ 
gether to form the number. They may be numeral, liters 
or both. Ex.: 3, », 2/, 3x, S^/, xy are factors of Zxy. Factoi 
expressed by letters are literal factors; those by numbersj 
numeral factors. 

An Algebraic term is a single quantity composed of on< 
or more factors. That is, it is an algebraic expression o\ 
one symbol, or of several symbols not separated by the 
sign + or — . 

The Degree of the Term is the number of its lateral 
factors. 

Algebraic Terms are classed as Monomials, Binomials, 
Trinomials, Polynomials, etc. 

(a) A Monomial, or simple expression, is a single dis- 
connected Algebraic quantity. Ex. : 3a. 

(5) A Binomial consists of two terms connected by the 
signs, plus or minus. Ex. : 2a-i-3&. 



AXG^BRA. 

(c) A Trinomial consists of three terms similarly con- 
nected. Ex.: 2a4-36— 4c. 

(d) A Polynomial consists of many terms similarly 
connected. Ex.: 2a-\-3b—ic-{-5d. A binomial is a polyno- 
mial of two terms; a trinomial is a polynomial of tliree 
terms. 

Homogeneous terms contain the same number of literal 
factors. 

Similar terms are those having the same letters af- 
fected by the same exponents; thus, 5x^y^j 7x^y* and 6x^y* 
are similar terms; bxy^^ 5x^y and 5x^y^ are dissimilar 
terms (although the letters are ahke in these terms they 
are not affected by the same exponents. ) 
"^ If a term is preceded by the + sign it is called a positive 
or plus term; if preceded by the — sign it is called a neg- 
ative or minus term. Before a single term and 
before the first term of a series the sign + is omit- 
ted. Thus, a is the same as +a, i. e., its sign is -j- but it is 
omitted; in the expression, a5— 3ac+d, the sign of ab is +> 
but for convenience and by usage it is omitted. Of course 
if a term has the minus sign the sign — is always placed 
before it. The sign -f- or — always precedes each 
term of an algebraic expression. 

If a term is combined with other letters by the sign X 
or -4-, each of these letters forms a part of that term, and 
the operations thus indicated must be performed before any 
part of the term can be added to or subtracted from any 
other term; as, 6-}-5X3=6-fl5=21; that is, 5 is first multi- 
plied by 3 and the product, 15, is then added to 6, making 
21; also the expression 25 — 14-=-2=25— 7=18; and 
16-f5X4+6-r-3, shows that 6 is to be divided by 3, 5 is to be 
multiplied by 4, and the quotient, 2, with the product, 20, 
added to 16; or, 16+20+2=38. 



If both terms connected by the + sign in the first part 
of the above expressions were >to be multiphed by 3, it 
should be written 3(6+5) j or 6+5X3, in which case 6 and 5 
would be added and their sum, 11, multiplied by 3, making 
the result 33. The expression a+6Xc means that the term 
h only is to be multiphed by c; (a+6)c, or, o+FXc, means 
that both terms are to be multiphed by c; the expression, 
a — 5-T-c, means that the term b only is to be divided by c; 
the expression {a—h)-i-c,or—, means that both terms 
are to be divided by c. 

EXERCISES. 

1. 20+6^2=23 ans. 

2. 30—6X2=18 ans. 

3. 16+4X2+6-^3=26 ans. 

4. 16--5X2+10-5-2=what? 

5. 12+4— 6-5-3=what? 

6. 18— 7+8X4=what? 

The numerical value of an Algebraic expression may 
be found by substituting given or known values for the 
letters and performing the operation indicated. Thus, if 
a=5, 3a=3Xa=3X5=15j a3=aXaXa=5X5X5=125. 

If, in the expression a+5— c, a=10, 6=12 and c=4, then 
a+5— 0=10+12—4=18; and In the expression ahc, if the 
values of the letters a=2, 6=3 and c=4, then a6c=2X3X4 
=24. 

If a=6, 6=8 and c=7, then -^^^=-^1— =-=-=2. 
' c 7 7 

EaERCISE . 

If a=2, 6=3, 0=5, d=4, »=1, 2/=6, 2=0, find the 
numerical value of: 

1. 16a 8. f6c'2' 15. dbc—Sxy 

2. 1460 9. iao»y» 16. ^-^ 




ai;g:^bra. 



3. S2abxy 10. 7a— 60 17. ^^ 

ao 

4. 5c^d^ 11. y^-x^ 18. ^ 

5. a^c^x*y^ 12. 2a3-6+(Z» 19. ^!^^- 

16z^ 



46c» 



6. ^ahd 13. x*+y^—z* 20. 

7. A6cy 14. x3_25^^3 

THE PARENTHESIS. 

The Algebraic expression witMn a parenthesis may be 
removed without changing the sign of any of the terms if 
the parenthesis is preceded by the + sign. Thus, ^(5+4 
— 2)=6+5+4— 2 and a-{-(b—c—d)=a+b~c—d. The same 
is true if any other of the signs of aggregation are used. 

) If the — precedes the parenthesis the sign before each 
term contained in it must be changed if the parenthesis is 
removed. Thus, 6— (4— 3) =6— 4+3; a— (6— c+d)=a— 6+ 
c — d'f — (a—b—c-\-d)—a-\-h-\-c—d. Let us emphasize this: 
Ifa-\- sign, expressed or understood, precedes a parenthesis 
the parenthesis may he removed without changing the sign of 
any term vnthin it; if a — sign precedes a parenthesis the sign 
of each term is changed if the parenthesis is removed. 

Combine the terms in the following after removing the 
parentheses: 

Models. 3+(6— 5)=3+6— 5=4; a+(b—c—d)=a+b— 
c—d; (5+4— 6)=5+4— 6=3; 16— (—5+3— 4) =16 +5— 3+4= 
22; —(—3+2— 6— 4)=3— 2+6+4=11; a— (6+c— d;+e)=a— 
6— c+d — e. 

1. 6+(— 4+3— 6+2)=what? 

2. 7+(6+3— 7+6— 8)=what? 
8. 9+(7— 6+3— 4+2)=what? 
4. 8+(9-3+4— 6+7)=what? 

9 



5. a+(c— d-f-e— /)=wliat? 

6. (a-(-c) +(d-j-e)=wliat? 

7. (a— 5)+(c— d)=wliat? 

8. 7— (4+2— 6)=wliat? 

9. 9— (— 6+4— 3)=wliat? 

10. 8+(3— 7+9)=wliat? 

11. a— (6+c+d)=wliat? 

12. c— ((Z+e+/)=wliat? 

13. (a— 6)— (c— d)=wliat? 

14. — (c— d)— (e+/)=what? 

It may also be noted tliat a number of terms repre- 
senting an Algebraic expression may be inclosed in a 
parenthesis and the plus sign placed before it provided 
none of the signs of the Inclosed terms are changed. Thus, 
6+4— 5=(6+4— 5) or 6+(4— 5); a+6— <j=(a+6-c) or a+ 
(5-c). 

Any number of terms representing an Algebraic expres- 
sion may be inclosed by a parenthesis and the — sign 
placed before it provided all the signs of the terms so 
inclosed are changed. Thus, 6— 7+3=— (—6+7— 3), or 
6_(7— 3); 8+3— 4=— (— 8— 3+4) or 8— (-^+4); a—b-^= 
— (— a+5+c) or a— (5+c); 

Express in hke manner the following, using a paren- 
thesis preceded by the — sign: 

1. a+6 — c 6. 6 — c—d — n 

2. — c— d+e 7. &x-{-Zy—7z 

3. x—y—z-^-v 8. 93i}y—7xz-\-4ah 

4. ah—ac-\-cd 9. a— 6+»— y— « 

5. —xy-\-ab—yz 10. abc-\-Sxz — 4m« 
Remove the parenthesises from the following: 
Models,— a— [ &— ( c—d )—e ]=a— b+(c— d)+e=a— 5+ 

c— d+e; a;— [— 2/+(7»— ti)+2;]=a;+y— (m+w)— 2=a;+y— m— 

10 



AI/G]gBRA. 

1. 26— [— <iH-c+(a— b-|-c)+e-f/] 

2. a— (a;— y)— (c+d)~(e4/)— (7n^-n) 

Addition is the process of finding the sum of two or 
more Algebraic quantities. 

The Algebraic sum of a positive and negative quantity 
is their arithmetical difference, having the sign of the 
greater prefixed. 

CASE 1. 

To add similar terms having like signs: 

Bule— Add the coefficients, annex the common literal 
part and prefix the common sign: 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Add: 3a, 5a, 4a and 6a. Ans. 18a, ^ 

2. Add: 9ab+aa;, 4a6-f-6aa;, 8a6-f-2aa;, 10a6+6aa;. Ans. 
31o&+14aaj. 

3. Add: 2(aH-Jf)*,6(a;+y)*,8(aj-i-y)S3(»+2()S6(x+y)*. 
Ans. 24(a;+y)*. 

4. Add: 5cd-{-Scd-\-cd-\^cd-{-7cd. Ans. 

6. Add: —7dby, — 3(iby, — 2(iby. Ans. — 12a5y. 

6. Add: 6h^d^m^-{-7b^d^m^'\-9b^d^m^, Ans.2262d»m». 

7. Add: 36+56+5+76+166. Ans. 

8. If 4a+9a+2a+5a=100, to what is a equal? 
Solution: 4a+9a+2a+-5a=20a; therefore a=100H-20, 

or 5, Ans. 

9. If 3a6+6a6+a6+7a6=64, to what is a6 equal? Ans. 
10. If xy-{-2xy-{-ixy+7xy=56f to what is xy equal? 

4, Ans. 

CASE 2. 

Similar terms with unlike signs: 

2. Add coefficients of positive and negative terms 
separately. 

3. To the difference of these sums annex the literal 
part, and prefix the sign of the greater sum. 

11 



■fWM 



AI,G^BRA. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Find sum of 2a^h^—8a^b^+Sa*b^+lla^b^—5a^b*, 
Ans. Sa^b^. 

2. Find sum of —8a^b^+2a^b^+^a^b^^9a^b^+lla^b^, 
Ans. 0. 

Learn to do this work mentally with rapidity. Note 
that if two equal terms have opposite signs "they cancel 
each other, i. e., they balance each other and may be 
omitted. 

Add the following: 

1. 4a&+3a6— 2a5+2a&— 3a6+3a&. 

2. — 5xy-\-Sxy-\-2xy — 3xy+5xy, 

3. 3bcd-{-4bcd—bcd-\-6bcd—8bcd+2bcd, 

4. —6y+iy—8y—y-{-8y-\-7y. 

5. 2m+3m— 5m4-4m — 2m-\-6m, 

6. If 2cd-\-5cd—^cd-{-2cd — cd=40, to what is cd equal? 

7. To what is xy equal if 5xy — ixy-\-2xy — 2x2^+3x2^=56? 

8. Find sum of (a— x)+6(a— x)— 2(a— x)— 9{a— x)+4 
(a— x)+5(a— x)— 7(a — ^x)+5(a--x) — 3(a — x). Ans. 0. 

CASE 3. 

To add any Algebraic quantities. 

Rule.— Write similar terms with their proper signs in 
the same column, add the columns separately and annex 
dissimilar terms with their signs. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Find sum of 7x—9y-\-5a-{-8 -g; —x—Sy — i—g; — aj— 
3a+2/+7fir-|-2j — gr~2-l-3a— 2X-I-62/. 
Solution: 

7x—9y+5a-\-8 — g 

—x—Zy —4 —g 

—x +y—Sa-\-2+7g 

— 2x+62^+3a— 2 — g 

3x— 62/+5a+4-|-4flf 
12 



2. Find sum of — 7^+35+45— 2£r—35+3£f 4-26—50. Ans., 
6b—5o-\-6g, 

3. Find sum ot7{a-\-h)^+h^c^; Bb^c^— 5(a-|-6)2; 3(a+ 
5)2_452c2^ 6b2c2+8(a+6)2, 7(a+6 )2— SbV. Ans., 20(a+6), 
+62c2. 

4. Reduce 2a*-8+534-6a*— 12— 763, i7~663+5a2+4c, 6a* 
— 268-3a3+2. 

5. Reduoe 5a;— 3a+6+7, — 4a— 3a;+26— 9, 2a-|-36— 9— 
lOx. Ans., — 5a+66— 8»— 11. 

6. Add 6a;2/— 12x2, — 4a;2-f-3a;2/+2c— 3cX, 4x^—2xyj Sxy— 
Sd-\-4x^+d, Ans., lOaji/— 8a;2+2c-5d. 

7. Add 3a2+46c— c2+10, — 5a2+66c+2c2— 15, — 4a2+21— 
10c2— 96c. * 

8. Add 5a;+2a — 26+6a;t/, —3a—8x—6xy—2bj 6xy—5x-^7x, 
Ans., 6xy~x — a — 46. 

SUBTRACTION. 

Subtraction is the process of finding tlie difference 
between two Algebraic quantities. The terms Subtrahend 
and Minuend have the same meaning as in Arithmetic. 
But the difference of the Algebraic quantities may be 
greater, numerically, than either; or it may be equal to 
their sum. In this respect it differs from Arithmetic, 

TO SUBTRACT ALGEBRAIC QUANTITIES. 

Rule.— Write the terms of the subtrahend under similar 
terms of the minuend: Consider all the signs of the sub- 
trahend changed from -{- to — , or from — to +, and solve 
as in addition. 

(For the explanation of this change see Notes at end of 
this topic.) 

1. Model operation: 

From 6ac — 3a6 +c 
Subtract 2ac-|-3a6+6c 

Rem. 4ac — 6a6— 6c 
13 



Al/GEBRA. 



^i 



EXAMPLES. 

2. From Qxy—Sa^c^, take —7xy—a^cK Ans. , ISxy— 7a*c'. 

3. From— 2(a24-62), take 9(a2+52). Ans., — ll{a2+52). 

4. From 55— a+Tc+d, take 46— c+2d+2c+fc. Ans., 

-«— 9&+6c— d— fc. 

5. From 4(a+6)2— 3a+4c, takea— 2c— 2{a+b)2. Ans., 
6{a+bp— 4a+6c. 

6. From 10a— 36+2c— a^, subtract 5— 5c4-a;^ 

7. From 6c^y — Zabf subtract mx — 2c^y. 

8. From 7^—llxy^-\-3a, take 8a—2x^—lSxy^. 

9. From 8a— 2x3— 18x2/2, take —3a-i-llxyz—x^. Ans., 
11a— x3— 29x2/2!. 

10. From Gac^— 2&2/^+4x— 3c2/, take --2ac2+362/'— 3x— 

3C2/+W. 

11. From 3c2/+7i+3x+2ac2-3632/, take 6ac'^—2by^+4x— 

2cy, 

12. From a'^+2ah-\-h^j take b'^—2ab+a^, Ans., 4a&. 

Note 1. The reason for changing the signs of the sub- 
trahend and then proceeding as in Addition may be under- 
stood by recalling these two Principles which are supposed 
to have been learned in the study of Arithmetic, viz: 

1. — If the Subtrahend be increased, the Remainder 
will be decreased by the same number 'of units. 

2.— If the Subtrahend be decreased, the Remainder 
will be increased by the same number of units. 

3. Subtracting a negative term is the same as add- 
ing an equal positive term. It may be illustrated in this 
way: One man is worth $100, while another has no prop- 
erty and is $100 in debt; it is easy to see that the first man 
is #200 "better off," or richer, than the second. The differ- 
ence between $100 in the bank (a positive quantity) and 
$100 in debt (a negative quantity) is $200. 

14 



4k Subtracting a positive term is the same as add- 
ing" an equal negative one. To illustrate: Suppose it is 
required to subtract+3 from 8+3; +3 from 8+3 leaves 8; 
adding— 3 to 8+3, gives us 8+3—3; is it not plain that if the 
same number be added to and subtracted from another 
number, that number will be neither increased nor dimin- 
ished? 

6. Prove your work in subtraction by adding the re- 
sult to the subtrahend; if the sum is equal to the minuend, 
the result is correct. 

6. Remember that like quantities only can be sub- 
tracted one from another; otherwise the result can only be 
indicated, thus : Sab less 2ab is ab, but 3a6 less b can only 
be expressed dab—b. 

Note 2 — ^As stated under Definitions, the minus sign has 
two uses; first, the sign of the quantity ; second as the 
sign of the operation, i. e., as a substitute for the word 
"subtract." 

The model example. No. 1, would be written as an Al- 
gebraic expression, thus: 

(6ac— 3a5+c)— (2ac+3ab+6c). 

Removing the parenthesis the expression becomes : 
6ac — 3a5+c — 2ac — 3a6 — 6c=4ac — Sab — 5c. 

From 27 subtract 8+4. 

The remainder, of course, is 15. 

Indicated algebraically we have 27— (8+4). 

If we subtract 8 alone the remainder, 19, is too great 
because our subtrahend is too small. If we then in- 
crease the subtrahend by 4 units, we decrease the re- 
mainder 19 by 4 units, and obtain 15, the true remainder. 

This operation is equivalent to removing the parenthe- 
sis and changing the signs of the terms contained in it. 
Hence the Rule for changing (mentally) the signs of th© 
subtrahend. 

15 



.AI^GBBRA. 

Note 3 — The Rule regarding the effect of minus as a 
sign of the operation holds good, not only in Subtraction, 
but also in Multiplication and Division. As commonly ex- 
pressed by teachers, 

"Minus a minus gives plus;" 
"Minus a plus gives minus," 
An expression not strictly correct, but one which has the 
"odor of sanctity" which custom gives. 

Students are advised to select from any Algebra within 
their reach as many similar examples for practice as time 
will permit them to use. 

Remember these two "ground rules" are the basis of 
all future algebraic operations. One cannot become too 
proficient in their application. 

In Subtraction do not rewrite and change the signs 
literally, but perform the process mentally, and then "pro- 
ceed as in addition." 

Begin now to "watch the signs." The greatest trouble 
for the beginner is with the signs. Watch the signs. 

See if you can make proper algebraic statements for 
the following and find results by subtracting algebraically: 

1. Jones is worth $500 and Smith owes $200 more than 
he is worth. What is the difference between their pecu- 
niary standing? 

2. A is three miles north of a township line and B is 
four miles south of the same line on the same meridian. 
What is their distance apart? 

3. What is the difference in longitude between two 
places, one of which is 37 degrees due east of the prime 
meridian, the other 49 degrees due west? 

MULTIPLICATION. 
(Multus, many; plicare, to fold.) 

Multiplication is the process of forming the product 
of two or more factors»( maker.) 

16 



AI/G^BRA. 

Rule for signs: Like signs of the factors produce 
plus ( + ) in their product; unlike signs produce minus 
( — ) in the product. Observe this carefully. Watch the 
signs. 

Multiplicand and Multiplier have the same signifi- 
cance in Algebra as in Arithmetic. 

Position of factors: The terms of the Multiplier 

should be placed under the corresponding term of the 
Multiplicand reading from the left, i. e., the first under 
the first, second under the second, etc. The operation 
of multiplying should always begin with the first term, 
followed by others consecutively. All terms in partial 
products should invariably be placed under similar ones, 
if there are any, for convenience in adding. 

CASE 1. 

When the Multiplier is a Monomial. 

Kule: — Multiply the Coefficient of each term in the 
Multiplicand by the Coefficient of the Multiplier; an- 
nex the literal factors, and add the exponents of those 
common to both Multiplier and MultipUcand. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Multiply iab by 5c. Ans. 20abo, 

2. Multiply 7a by 36. Ans. 21a6. 

3. Multiply 3xy by —2ab. Ans. — Qahxy. 

4. Multiply 4a2 by Sa^. Ans. I2a^. 

5. Multiply 7a62 by —Za^b. Ans. —21a^b^, 

6. Multiply 36a865c8 by Sab^c^d*. Ans. 180a»6'^c»d*. 

7. Multiply 25a*53c2d by ^a'^b^o^d^, 

8. Multiply Saabtti by 5a6. Ans. 40an+i6«M+i, 

9. Multiply 5a2by Sao. Ans. 15a3+n. 
10. Multiply 16a63 by %a^bc^. 

17 



TO MULTIPLY A POLYNOMIAL BY A MONOMIAL, 

Rule.— Multiply each term of the multiplicand b^' the 
multiplier. ( Watch the signs. ) 
1. Multiply m-\-n by a. 
Solution: m-f-n 

a 



am+an 
2. Multiply ab — cd by ac. 
Solution : ab — cd 

ac 



a%c — ac^d 

3. Multiply 3a52— 2cd+m by 3am. 

4. Multiply 4a2— 4a52+x2 by — 2ab. 

5. Multiply 2a2— 3&2_c2 by —SacK 

CASE 2. 
To multiply by polynomials. 

Kule. — Multiply each term of the Multiplicand by each 
term of the Multiplier and add the partial products. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Multiply 2a+35 by x+2y. 

Solution: 2a +36 

x-\-2y . 

2aa;4-35a;-|-4a2/+662^ 

2. Multiply 36+2a— c by a— 6. 

Solution: Sb-\-2a—c 

a — b 



3ab+2a2-ac 
~2ab _352_|_5c 

a6+2a2—ac— 3524-50 

3. Multiply a^ -ab— 62 by a— 6. 

4. Multiply a2— a6+62 by a^-\-ab+bK 
6. Multiply 3a2— 6a6+262 by 4a2— 7a6, , 

18 



ai;g:^bra. 

6. Multiply 3x2— 2a;2/+5c by x^-\-2xy—3—c. 

7. Multiply 4a5 — 2ac by 6a6+3ac. 

8. Multiply a-\-by-{-cy by h-}-c-\-by. 

9. Multiply a2+2a6+a2 by a+5. 

10. Multiply a2— 2a6+b2 by a— 6. Ans. to last, a^—3a% 
4-3a52— 63. 

Sometimes the multiplication of polynomials is indi- 
cated by placing each factor in a parenthesis and writing 
one after the other. Thus, {a^-\-ab+b^ ) {a—b ) is the same 
&a(a^+ab-\-b^)X{a~b.) 

When the operations indicated by their signs or their 
exponents are performed algebraic expressions areifiaid to 
be developed or expanded. For example, in the above, 
when ( a2+a6+62 ) is multiplied by {a—b) the expression 
{a2+a6+62) {a—b) is developed. We expand the expression 
(a;H-2/)2 by multiplying (x-hy) by {x+y)j that is, {x+y)^ is 
the same as {x-^y) {x+y). 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Develop ( a +6 ) {a—b ) . Ans. , a2— 62. 

2. Develop (a2+l) (a2—l). Ans., a*— 1. 

3. Develop (m+2ii) {m^-\-2mn-\-n^). 

4. Expand(a+5)2; (a2+a6+62) (a— 6). 

5. Expand (a+d-fc) (a+6-fc). 



19 



AI,G:g;BRA. 
OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

(FIRST PAPER). 

1. When was Algebra introduced into Europe and by 
whom ? 

2. Who invented +, — and •/ ? How are Algebraio 
quantities classified ? 

3. What is the difference between an Axioill and a 
Theorem ? What is a Solution ? 

4. Define Algebra. In what three ways may you indi- 
cate multiphcation of hteral factors ? 

5. In what two ways should division be indicated ? 

6. How is the sign of equality made ? The sign of in- 
equahty ? 

7. Define coefficient. Why is Exponent so named? 

8. Explain the origin of the radical sign. How are 
Algebraic terms classified ? 

9. Is a Binomial a polynomial term ? Explain what is 
meant by similar terms. 

10. What is the Algebraic sum of a positive and a neg- 
ative term. 

11. Add 4a;2-{-b2/— 6a262_8a;2— 1752/— 4a262+4x2+15&2/+10 
a262. 

12. How may numerical value of an Algebraic expres- 
sion be found ? 

13. Explain the value of the parenthesis. Give rule 
for adding similar terms having hke signs. 

14. Give rules for adding similar terms with unlike 

') 15. How does subtraction of Algebraic quantities differ 
from the subtraction of Arithmetic quantities ? 

16. How do you subtract Algebraic polynoroials ? 

17. What difference may exist between the values of 
Algebraic and Arithmetical remainder. 

18. Give rule for multiphcation when the multiplier is 
a monomial. 

19. Multiply Sab hy—8xy. 8x^ by Sa^. 

20. Give rule for multiplying a polynomial by a mono- 
Goial. 

20 



FIRST GRADE— NUMBER TWO. 



Teachers' Home Series 



I. B. McKENNA. M. A., IL. D., 

President and Director. 



Quincy School of Correspondencet 
Quincy, Illinois. 



COPYRIGHT 
QUINCY BUSINESS COLLEGE. 

1902. 




BOTANY. 

(SECOND PAPER.) 
THE STEM. 

A shoot is almost always divided into members of two 
kinds, the stem and leaves. The stem is the central axis 
of a shoot. Leaves commonly differ from the stem in 
their flattened form,( limited growth and position subtend- 
ing lateral shoots. 

The surface of a stem is generally divisible into two 
distinct regions, the nodes and internodes. The nodes are 
the narrow zones, often somewhat swollen, at which one 
or more leaves arise. The internodes are the zones be- 
tween the nodes. The internodes may be consider- 
ably elongated, and the leaves distributed along the stem 
at regular intervals. Often, on the contrary, the inter- 
nodes remain very short so that the crowded leaves com- 
pletely hide the stem as in the Cedars and Arbor- vitae. 
In other plants, as in the Shepherd's Purse, the internodes 
at the base of the stem are short so tliat the leaves are 
crowded to form a rosette ; farther up the internodes are 
elongated the corresponding leaves being scattered at reg- 
ular intervals ; while still higher the internodes are again 
shortened and the leaves brought into close clusters in the 
flowers. 

Forms of Stems.— Classified with reference to shape, 
stems may be : 

1. Cylindrical. 

2. Flattened— as in the Cactus. 

3. Triangular— Rush. 

4. Quadrangular— Mint. 

5. Fluted— Parsnip. 

6. Jointed— Wheat. 



BOTANY. 

Classified with reference to the direction of growth, 
stems may be : 

1. Erect — Upright. 

2. Ascending — Rising obliquely. 

3. Reclining — ^First erect, then bent down. 

4. Decumbent — Creeping along ground, apex up, 

5. Procumbent, trailing or prostrate— flat on 
ground without rooting. 

6. Repent— Creeping, rooting as it grows (as in 
White Clover). 

7. Twining — as in Morning Glory. 

8. Scalent or Scandent— Climbing by special organs 
(as the Ivy and the Grape ). 

Aerial Stems. — 1. Caulis is a term applied to an- 
nual leafy stems of herbaceous plants. Caulescent and 
acaulescent are terms denoting the presence or absence 
of the caulis or aerial stem. The common blue violet is 
acaulescent; the yellow violet is caulescent. 

2. A vine may be either woody or herbaceous. It is 
a stem too weak to stand erect. 

3. Culm— Jointed; Ex. Grains, Bamboo. 

4. Scape— A flowering stem destitute of foliage 
leaves; Ex. Dandelion. 

5. Caudex— An unbranching and scaly stem; Ex. 
Palms. 

6. Stolon— A prostrate branch, which on touching 
the ground takes root, producing a new plant; Ex. Rasp- 
berry. 

7. Sucker— An aerial shoot springing up from a 
stolon. 

8. Offset— A short Stolon or Sucker; Ex. Houseleek. 

9. Runner— A repent stem; Ex. Strawberry. 



BOTANY. 

10. Trunk— The central column or axis of a tree. If 
the central axis runs through to the summit as in the 
Spruce, Beech, Birch and Oak, the term excurrent is ap- 
plied. If the trunk divides into several subequal branches 
as in the Elm and Apple, it is said to be deliquescent. 

Classified with reference to duration, stems may be : 

1. Annuals — those which last but one season, or 
year. 

2. Biennials — those which last two seasons before 
the seed is perfected. 

3. Perennials— lasting from year to year as in shrubs 
and trees. In the perennials, of those shrubs which begin 
branching near the ground, the smaller ones are spoken of 
as Suffruticose; the larger ones as Fruticose; while the 
trees that rise by a single trunk are called Arborescent. 

The term herbaceous is apphed to a stem which is 
soft and succulent as the violet, raddish, grass, etc., in dis- 
tinction from those which are hard and woody. 

Structure of Stems. — If a thin section be cut from 
an internode which has reached its full length, three 
definite regions may be distinguished, viz: (1) the epi- 
dermis; (2) the cortex, meaning * 'bark" or "rind;" (3) 
the stele, meaning "column" or central cylinder. 

1. The epidermis is a single layer of cells forming 
the outside covering of the stem. Tiny openings here and 
there permit communication between the outside and the 
air spaces of the cortex. Often the epidermis is furnished 
with hair-scales and like outgrowths. 

2. The cortex consists of several layers of cells, 
usually thin-walled and not in close contact, and hence 
abundantly provided with intercellular spaces. The cells 
usually contain many chloroplasts, to which the green 
color common to young stems is due. In certain plants 



BOTANY. 

the cortex undergoes an enormous development, forming 
in some tubers the greater part of the massive stem; in 
others it is so reduced that it consists of only two or three 
layers of cells. With the epidermis it very commonly 
enters into the formation of such outgrowths as warts, 
prickles, wings, etc. Very frequently the intercellular 
spaces of the cortex are greatly enlarged, forming air pas- 
sages of considerable size. Sometimes the cells become 
thick walled and arranged in strands serving an important 
purpose in strengthening the stem. 

3. Stele forms the central region. Its most striking 
parts are several or many clusters of smaller cells forming 
the vascular strands. The central portion and the 
space between the vascular strands is occupied by the 
pith. 

If freshly cut stems of our bean and corn seedlings, or 
celery, pie -plant, or any actively growing plant be al- 
lowed to stand for a few hours in red ink the ink will 
ascend the stems and traverse the veins of the leaves, 
coloring its pathway red. If cross -sections of the stem be 
made, it will be seen that the ink ascended by a limited 
number of definite paths and, if a stem hke the celery has 
been used, that these paths follow the tough fibers travers- 
ing the stem. These tough fibers (fibro-vasciilar (fl-bro- 
vas'-ku-ler) bundles or vascular strands ) contain the 
ducts or vessels which conduct the sap up the stem to the 
leaves. In herbaceous stems these fibro-vascular bundles 
are few in number and separated from each other. In 
woody stems they form a compact mass composing the 
wood, or xylem (zi-lem) and inner bark. 

In each fibro-vascular bundle there is besides the 
xylem, or region through which the water ascends, a bast 
or phloem region containing sieve-tubes through which 




BOTANY. 



the elaborated sap from the leaves is supposed to descend 
to various parts of the plant. Many of the most valuable 
textile fibers, such as flax, hemp, etc., are obtained from 
the, bast region of the stem. 

Between the bast region, which constitutes the bark of 
trees, and the xylem region is a section composed of deli- 
cate, actively growing cells, without tubes of any descrip- 
tion, called the cajubium (kam-bi um) region. The 
cambium in growing gives rise to both bast and xylem, 
and is easily distinguished in trees in the spring of the 
year by its glutinous character and its position between 
the true bark and the wood. 

The pitli is frequently found enormously developed 
in those parts of the stem used , for storing reserve food, 
such as the tubers of the white Potato and the Yam. In 
other plants, particularly those growing in water, it suffers 
extreme reduction, or is often completely wanting. In 
some plants the pith dies early and shrivels up, leaving 
large canals through it or even disappears entirely. Such 
early disappearance of the pith produces the hollow stem 
characteristic of the Grasses, Sedges and Sunflower. 

(Secondary changes often take place as a stem grows 
older so that the structure described above may be con- 
siderably modified. This is due chiefly to the formation 
of one or two concentric layers of actively dividing cells 
parallel to the surface. They are formed by existing cells 
which retain or resume their power of active growth and 
division. The external growing layer, called the cork 
cambium, forms a secondary cortex called periderm, 
while the inner growing layer or stelar cambium forms 
the secondary wood and secondary bast. 

The outer tissues of the periderm rarely remain 
livinsr. The close -set flat cells early lose their contents 



BOTANY. 

and the walls become waterproof, forming cork. Other 
cells, by thickening of their walls, are altered into me- 
chanical tissues. Often zones of cork alternate with zones 
of mechanical tissues. Since almost no water can pass 
through a cork zone it is evident that all parts lying out- 
side of one are cut off from nourishment and must sooner 
or later perish. The dead tissues which accumulate from 
year to year upon the outside of perennial stems constitute 
the bark. The inner part of the bark belongs to the stele. 
The dead outer parts may peel off in concentric sheets, as 
in the Birch; or they may break away in the form of scales 
and flakes as in the Hickory, Sycamore and Apple. In 
many trees the dead outer portions are only gradually 
worn away by the action of the weather, becoming seamed 
and deeply furrowed lengthwise. 

The stelar cambium hes between the bast and the 
wood or xylem of the vascular strands in dicotyledonous 
stems. As the vascular strands are arranged in a single 
circle parallel to the surface of the stem the cambium of 
the various strands by extending across the intervening 
pith rays comes to form a complete zone nearly concentric 
with the surface of the stem. Outside of this zone the 
secondary bast arises and inside the secondary wood is 
formed. If the stem is perennial, year after year the cam- 
bium resumes its growth, adding layer after layer to the 
secondary wood and bast producing the "annual rings" 
seen in the cross section of a tree trunk. 

Dicotyledonous and Monocotyledonous Stems. 
— Cut across a bean, sunflower or celery stem and examine 
the cut end with a lens. The fibre -vascular bundles are 
arranged in a circle around the edge of the stem. In a 
similar manner examine a corn-stalk. Its fibro-vascular 
bundles are scattered throughout the pith of the stem 

6 



BOTANY. 

without any definite arrangement. Moreover a compound 
microscope shows that in the older bundles the cambium 
cells have all changed into xylem or bast and only the 
young and growing bundles contain cambium. 

A stem of the first kind grows in thickness by continual 
formation of new cambium and change of this into bast or 
bark on the outside and xylem or wood on the inside. If 
the growth is intermittent, concentric rings of wood are 
produced as in trees. This arrangement of fibro-vascular 
bundles obtains in all Dicotyledonous and Polycotyle- 
donous plants, hence they are sometimes called Exo- 
genous (eks-oj'-e-nus) meaning *'outside growing.'^ 

A stem of the second kind, the corn-stalk, grows in 
thickness by formation of new fibro-vascular bundles 
between the old ones, hence there is no separate pith at 
the center, no rings of wood, and no distinct bark. Such a 
stem is said to be Endogenous (en-doj'-e-nus) and is found 
in all Monocotyledonous plants. Hence Monocotyle- 
dons are often called Endogens (en'-do-jens). Such 
vascular strands as are described above in which the 
xylem and bast strands are "side by side" upon the same 
radius, are called collateral. In the Exogens some me^ri- 
stem (the cambium ) is left between the xylem and the 
bast so that the work of forming new cells can go on in- 
definitely. Such a fibro-vascular bundle is called an open 
bundle. In the Endogens the bundles are collateral but 
closed — that is, with no meristem between the xylem and 
bast. This lack of cambium means that stems living for 
several years do not increase in diameter, but become 
columnar shafts, as in the Palm. It also means lack of 
ability to develop an extending branch system or to dis- 
play more numerous leaves each year. The Palm may be 
taken as a typical result of such a structure, with its 



SOTANir. 

Columnar shaft and unbranched trunk, and its folia^ 
crown containing about the same number of leaves eac 
year. 

Pteridopliyte or Fern Stems.— In these stei 
there is no true epidermis, the cortex developing the e: 
ternal protective tissue. In the cortex there is usually 
extensive development of stereome in the form 
sclerenchyma which furnishes the principal support to tl 
stem, the stele furnishing little or none and the vascul 
bundles not adding much to the rigidity. In the typic 
fern- stem one or more vascular bundles are organized 
the stele, the tracheary (xylem) vessels being in the cent! 
and completely surrounded by the sieve vessels. This 
called a concentric bundle as distinguished from t| 
collateral bundles of Seed-plants. 

LEAVES. 

Leaf Structure.— The fibro-vascular bundles coi 
duct the sap up to the leaves and by branching abundant 
distribute it to all parts of the leaf. The leaf consists iol 
this network of fibro-vascular bundles (veins) filled in 
with a mass of delicate cells (mesophyll) protected above 
and below by a tougher epidermis. 

A cross-section of a leaf shows an upper layer of color- 
less flattened thick-walled cells (epidermis); immediate- 
ly below this a layer of thinner -walled cells containing 
green coloring matter (clilorophyll, klo'-ro-fil) and ar- 
ranged compactly with their narrow ends abutting against 
the epidermis so as to resemble somewhat a palisade, 
hence called palisade cells; below the palisade cells a 
mass of loosely arranged cells with air spaces intervening 
(parencliyma cells, pa-ren-ki-mi) and lastly on the un- 
der side an epidermis similar to that on the upper side. 

8 



BOTANY. 

If some of the epidermis be stripped off and examined 
with a microscope there will be found in it small slit-like 
openings (stomata, stom'-a-ta, singular number stom'-a) 
surrounded each one by two crescent-shaped guard cells. 
The shts open into the air spaces between the cells, and 
the size of the opening is regulated by the guard cells. 

Functions of Leaves.— The sap which is brought to 
the leaves by the fibro- vascular bundles of the stem evap- 
orates into the air-spaces and through the stomata. The 
giving off of water by the leaves in this manner is called 
transpiration. If transpiration is too active the cells of 
the plant tend to lose their turgor and the plant wilts. 
The transpiration is controlled to a considerable extent by 
the guard cells of the stomata which begin to collapse 
when they begin to lose their turgor, and thus close the 
stomata and check evaporation. 

It has been found by experiment that green plants 
thrive best upon the following solution: Potassium ni- 
trate, 1 gram; sodium chloride, calcium sulphate, magne- 
sium sulphate, calcium phosphate, )4, grani of each; dis- 
tilled water 1000 grams. This is about the composition of 
' the water which is taken from the soil by the roots of the 
plant. In addition to this, most plants absorb more or less 
organic matter and make use of it in building up their 
tissues. In addition to water and mineral salts all living 
protoplasm, no matter whether it is found in an animal or 
in a plant, requires oxygen, which must be absorbed either 
from the air or from air dissolved in water. The oxygen 
is used in building up protoplasm and carbon dioxide is 
thrown off by the breaking down of protoplasm. As every 
plant cell is composed largely of protoplasm, there must 
be oxygen absorbed by plants and carbon dioxide given 
out. This is called respiration. Germinating seeds and 



/m 



BOTANY. 

all growing plants carry on continually this process of res- 
piration, and as the foliage leaves present a large amount 
of surface to the air the interchange of gases takes place 
largely through them. 

From the air all green plants absorb carbon dioxide 
(CO2, carbon and oxygen) and combine with it water ( H2O 
hydrogen and oxygen) to form starch (CeHioOs, composed 
of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen). The formation of starch 
takes place first in little green chlorophyll bodies ( chloro- 
plasts ) which are distributed through the protoplasm of 
the cells of the leaf and all green portions of the plant. 
The starch will not form except in the light. If a plant 
which has been kept in the dark for some time be examined 
for starch none will be found in the chloroplasts but if the 
plant is exposed to the light, in a few hours starch will 
begin to form in these bodies. This process is called 
pliotosynthesis (fo-to-sin'-the-sis) or photosyntax (fo- 
to-sin'-taks). During the night the starch which has been 
formed during the day is redissolved and changed into other 
compounds, such as sugar, cellulose, etc., etc., and is finally 
incorporated into that very complex substance, proto- 
plasm. In combining water and carbon dioxide to form 
starch, some oxygen is left over and this is thrown off by 
the plant. Thus, green growing plants in the light are 
continually taking up the carbon dioxide, which has been 
exhaled by animals, and giving out oxygen, which is in- 
haled by animals. 

Starch, sugar and cellulose belong to a class of chemi- 
cal compounds called carbohydrates (car-bo-hi'-drat), 
which are very essential to the building up of plant and 
animal tissues. Only plants containing chlorophyll have 
the power of making carbohydrates out of the crude ma- 
terials, carbon dioxide and water. Therefore, plants which 

10 



BOTANY. 

have no chlorophyll and all animals must get their carbo- 
hydrates already prepared, that is, they must take them 
from some other plant or animal. Those plants which live 
upon other living plants, absorbing their nourishment from 
them, are said to be parasitic, (Mistletoe, Dodder, 
Rusts). Those which absorb their nourishment entirely 
from dead or decaying vegetable or animal matter are said 
to be saprophytic (sap-ro-flt'-ic) (Mould, Mushrooms, 
Toadstools). As a matter of fact, most plants make use 
of decayed organic matter to a greater or less extent, when 
they can get it, to supplement their own carbohydrate 
manufacture. A few plants, hke Venus's Fly Trap, and 
Sundew, catch insects and absorb their juices. Such^lants 
are said to be carnivorous. 

Relation of Leaves to Light.— We have seen how 
light plays an important part in the chemical changes 
taking place inside the leaf. To secure these changes the 
leaves must be brought into a favorable light relation, i. e., 
they must be in a position to receive plenty of hght to 
carry on the process of photosynthesis and yet must not be 
exposed to an intense sunlight because this would destroy 
the chlorophyll and prevent the very action sought after. 
Most leaves, when full grown, have .a fixed position and 
cannot change it. Others have no fixed position, but 
change their position as the light changes. A careful ob- 
server will see many interesting adaptations to this light 
relation. 

Notice a collection of house -plants in a window. Un- 
less the pots are frequently turned the plants all lean in 
the direction from which the light comes. If the plants 
have not been moved for some time notice how the leaves 
are arranged so as to shade each other as little as possible. 
Viewed from without they form apparently a solid bank or 

11 



BOTANY. 

mosaic of foliage so nicely do they fit in and fill up all the 
spaces. The flower beds in the garden, the Ivy cHnging to 
the wall, trees in isolated positions all show this interest- 
ing arrangement of the leaves produced by the influence 
of light. This influence of hght on the positions of leaves 
and other organs is known as heliotropism (he-li-ot'-ro- 
pism). 

Relation of Size of Leaves to Phyllotaxy.— Ex- 
amine individual plants in isolated positions and determine 
if possible the conditions which prevail in each case en- 
abling the plant to adjust itself to the hght. Under the 
head of phyllotaxy we shall learn that in an erect stem 
there is always a definite number of vertical rows of leaves 
in a given species. Narrow-leaved plants, Hke the Easter 
Lily, usually have the leaves in a larger number of vertical 
rows than broad-leaved plants and when we consider that 
it is a distinct advantage to the plant for its leaves to shade 
each other as Mttle as possible the meaning of the relation 
between the breadth of the leaves and the number of ver- 
tical rows becomes plain. Again consider the relation be- 
tween the length of the leaves and the distance between 
the leaves of the same vertical row. It is evident that if 
the leaves are short they may be arranged closer together 
on the stem without shading each other than they can be 
if they are long. Also, narrow leaves may be closer to- 
gether on the stem than broad ones for the same reason. 

Relative Lengths of the Petioles.— In a great 
many common plants the lower leaves have longer petioles 
than the upper ones so that the blades are brought into a 
more favorable hght relation. Again there may be a few 
large leaves at the base of the plant and the stem leaves 
become smaller and smaller toward the apex of the stem. 
This is the case in the common Mullein and the Shepherd's 

12 



Purse. By this arrangement all the leaves are well ex- 
posed to the light. 

Sometimes leaves are massed into the form of a rosette 
as in the Live -for -ever. Notice the light relation here. 
The leaves are fitted together and diminish in size upward 
so as to avoid excessive shading. The individual leaves 
also become narrower where they overlap, and are broad- 
est at the apex where most of the light falls. 

Division of Leaves. — Often leaves are lobed or di- 
dded into many small divisions, as in compound leaves, so 
that the hght can get through to the leaflets underneath. 
Observe a horizontal, or prostrate stem, or one against a 
support as the Ivy. The leaf blades must all be bronght to 
the light side of the stem and those that belong to the 
lower side of the stem are fitted into the spaces left by the 
leaves which belong to the upper side. This is brought 
about by the twisting of the stem or of the petioles, the 
bending of the blade on the petiole, the lengthening of 
petioles, etc. 

* Protection From Intense Light. — Under leaf 
structure we learned that the row of cells beneath the epi- 
dermis of the upper side of the leaf are generally ar- 
ranged with narrow ends against the epidermis like a pali- 
sade. Leaves from the same plant show a difference in 
structure, depending upon whether they have been ex- 
posed to strong fight or not. Those which have been ex- 
posed to strong light have from one to several rows of 
pafisade cells. Sometimes all of the mesophyll cells ar- 
range themselves as pafisade cells. Those which have 
been in the shade show no pafisade arrangement of the 
cells. Evidently the pafisade arrangement is an adapta- 
tion for protection against intense light. The so-called 
"compass plants," the Rosin-weed of the prairies and the 

13 



BOTANY. 

Prickly Lettuce, a common weed, when growing in ex- 
posed situations, have their leaves turned edgewise, the 
flat faces being turned away from the intense rays of mid- 
day; that is, toward the morning and evening rays. As a 
result the faces would be toward the east and west and the 
edges toward the north and south. 

Motile Leaves. — Of the leaves which shift their" po- 
sition as the direction of the hght changes, the common 
Oxahs or Wood Sorrel is a good example. This plant has 
little heart-shaped leaflets which droop and fold together 
at night and open out by day. The Red Bud tree and 
Sensitive Plant show the same characteristics. If one of 
these plants be exposed to the light in a window and the 
positions of the leaves noted, and then turned half way 
around, so as to bring the other side to the light, the leaves 
will be seen to adjust themselves gradually to the changed 
light relations. 

Leaf Protection. — The protection of leaves against 
intense light by arrangement of palisade cells has already 
been discussed. The same arrangement would serve 
equally as a protection against drying. Often there are 
apparently several layers of epidermal cells, or the outer 
walls become much thickened, forming a cuticle, or all 
the walls of the epidermal cells become thickened. 

A great variety of hairs or scales, (trichomes, trik'- 
om) developed by the epidermis, form, sometimes, a 
slightly downy covering, sometimes a dense woolly or felt- 
like covering entirely concealing the surface of the epider- 
mis as in the common Mullein. In any case these struct- 
ures serve as a protection against extremes of drought, 
cold or hght. 

In cold or dry regions the hairy covering of leaves is 
V ty noticeable, often giving them a brilKant silky white 

14 



BOTANY. 

or bronze look. In very dry regions the leaves are often 
small and comparatively thick but very numerous. The 
leaves of Yuccas and Agaves have thick, fleshy leaves 
which serve as water reservoirs. As an additional pro- 
tection they have an abundance of palisade tissue, and 
very thick epidermal walls and cuticle. In the Cactuses 
the leaves are reduced to mere spines and seem to serve 
solely as a protection against the ravages of animals. 

A rosette arrangement of leaves in which the cluster is 
flat upon the ground and more or less overlapping is a 
very effective adaptation for the resistance of intense hght, 
drought or cold. The "compass plants" already mentioned 
are good illustrations of protective position of leaves. In 
the dry regions of Austraha the leaves on many of the 
forest trees have this edgewise or profile position. 

The "sensitive plants" assume protective positions 
very quickly upon exposure to drought, heat or other ex- 
ternal stimulus. The leaflets fold together and droop, thus 
presenting less surface to the dry air. The so-called 
"sleeping positions" of such plants as the Oxalis, White 
Clover and of the seed leaves of many young germinating 
plants enables the plant to present less surface for radia- 
tion of heat which occurs at night and which may chill the 
plant to the danger point. 

In the case of the evergreens the leaves have weU 
developed protective structures and are thus enabled to 
pass the winter. In the Juniper the leaves he close to- 
gether along the stem and overlap'in wint-^r and open out 
when warmer weather comes. 

Protection Against t^ain.— If a leaf becomes water- 
soaked there is danger of the stomata becoming clogged 
and air exchanges being interfered with. Many leaves by 
their position allow the water to run off readily, either 

15 



BOTANY. 

dripping from the apex to tlie ground or running down the 
petiole to the main stem and thence to the roots. Some 
of the structures which prevent the water from soaking in 
are, a smooth epidermis, a cuticle layer, waxy secretions, 
felt-like covering, etc. 

Vernation or Pref oliation.— This is the term given 
to the arrangement and folding of leaf organs composing 
the bud. 

The individual leaves in the bud may be : 

1. Inflex'ed or Reclined when the apex is bent over 
to the base. 

2. Condu'plicate, folded at the midrib, so as to bring 
each half of the face of the leaf together; Ex. Oak. 

3. Pli'cated or Plaited, folded fan-hke; Ex. Maple, 
Birch. 

4. Cir'cinate, when rolled from end to end; Ex. 
Fern. 

5. Con'volute, rolled from one edge into a coil; Ex. 
Plum. 

6. In'volute, rolled from both edges inwards to 
midrib; Ex. Violet. 

7. Rev'oliite, same but rolled outwards towards the 
back of the midrib; Ex. Yellow Dock. 

With reference to each other the leaves may be: 

1. E'quitant, leaves conduplicate ; in each pair the 
midribs are placed opposite each other, while the margins 
of one leaf straddle those of its fellow. 

2. Ob' volute, or Half Equitant, in this the general 
arrangement is the same as in the Equitant, but each leaf 
embraces one margin only of the other; Ex. Sage. 

3. Trique'trous, leaves conduplicate; arranged in 
sets of three so as to form a triangle; Ex. Sedges. 

16 



BOTANY. 

Pliyllotaxy {fil'-o-taks'-y).— This term has reference 
to the arrangement of leaves on the stem. There are two 
principal methods (1 ) wliorlecl or verticillate and (2) 
alternate. 

In the Wliorlecl arrangement two or more leaves are 
set on the same level at a node. If a pair only occurs, they 
are placed opposite each other at this point. 

Opposite leaves are usually Decussate, i. e., the 
second pair on the stem stands above the first, but at a 
right angle to the lower one; Ex. Lilac. 

When three leaves occur in a whorl, they are placed 
one-third of the circumference of the stem apart, f f in 
fours they then are at intervals of one -quarter of the cir- 
cle; the leaves of the whorl above covering the interspaces 
of the lower one; Ex. Mint. 

In the Alternate arrangement one leaf only of the 
pair is developed at each node and they are found to be 
arranged in a spiral manner on the stem. If, beginning at 
any leaf below, this spiral be followed up, it will be ob- 
served, that after a certain number of turns have been 
made, a leaf will be found which stands directly above the 
first one, i. e., it is Orthostachous. By setting down as 
a numerator the turns thus made, and as a denominator 
the number of leaves passed, a fraction will be obtained 
which will be found to conform to some of the following 
series: 1-2, 1-3, 2-5, 3-8, 6-13, etc. These factors may be 
remembered by the key, that by taking the two lowest 
ones and adding together their enumerators for the new 
numerator, and their denominators for the new denomina- 
tor, the next set is found, and so on up through the mathe- 
matical series. Each of these orders bears a name that in- 
dicates its rank. The perpendicular rows of leaves on the 
stem are spoken of as Ortliostachies. 

17 



BOTANY. 

The several kinds of alternate arrangement are des- 
ignated as: 

Distichous — 1-2 arrangement; Ex. Elm. 

Tristichous— 1-3; Ex. Sedges. 

Pentastichous— 2-5; Ex. Cherry, Apple. 

Octacticlious— 3-8; Ex. Osage Orange. 

The higher forms are more rare. It follows that as the 
branches spring from buds in the axils of these leaves, that 
the same spiral plan may be made out in the limbs. 

Duration of Leaves. — Leaves are classified as: 

1. Persistent or Evergreen, if they remain on the 
tree, green, for a year or more. 

2. Deciduous, if unfolding in the spring and drop- 
ping in the fall. 

3. Fugaceous or Caducous, if falling early in the 
summer; as bud scales, and other imperfect leaves. 

Classified with reference to position on the plant leaves 
may be : 

1. Seminal or Primordial, those born by the em- 
bryo in the seed. 

2. Cauline, borne on the main stem. 

3. Rameal, borne on the branches. 

4. Radical, springing from the stem at, or just 
above the ground. 

5. Floral, the leaves of the flower. 

Venation of Leaves. — By this is meant the arrange- 
ment of the veins in the leaf. This is of special impor- 
tance, as it is one of the first points to be noted in order 
to classify a plant. To determine this, hold the leaf up to 
a good Mght. 

There are three distinct types : 

1. Furcated or Forked, in which the veins divide 
equally, hke a fork. This form is common in the ferns. 

18 



BOTANY. 

2. Nerved or Parallel Veined, as in Grasses and 
Lilies. 

3. Reticulate or Netted Veined, common to most 
trees; Ex. Oak, Maple, etc. The Netted Veined leaves 
may be either pinnately- veined (feather-veined), hav- 
ing a midrib with lateral branches parallel like a feather, 
or palmately veined, having several main veins ra- 
diating from the base. 






19 






BOTANY. 
OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

(SECOND PAPER.) 

1. Define the terms node, internode. Classify 
stems with reference to shape. 

2. Classify stems with reference to direction of growth . 

3. Define the terms acaulescent, vine, scape 
culm, stolon, sucker, offset, runner, excurrent, 
deliquescent. 

4. What is an annual, a biennial, a perennial? 

5. What three parts compose the stem? 

6. Describe the structure of a fibro-vascular bundle. 
What is its function? 

7. Compare the structure of a Monocotyledonous stem 
with that of a Dicotyledonous stem. What are the charac- 
teristics resulting from the Monocotyledonous structure? 

8. Describe the structure of a fern stem. 

9. Describe the microscopic structure of a leaf. 

10. What is transpiration and how is it accomplished 
by the leaf? 

11. What food do plants get from the soil? What do 
they get from the air? How do they elaborate the crude 
food materials into plant food? 

12. What is photosynthesis? Respiration? How 
do they difeer? 

13. Define heliotropism. What are some of the 
ways in which leaves dispose themselves so as to get as 
much light as possible? 

14. How do leaves dispose themselves so as to avoid 
or protect themselves from too intense fight? 

15. How do leaves protect themselves from drought 
or cold? 

16. How do they protect themselves from rain? 
; 17. What is vernation? Phyllotaxy? 

18. Define the following terms as appUed to leaves : 
Opposite, alternate, whorled deciduous, fugace- 
ous, radical, floral, netted-veined, parallel veined. 

20 



ZOOLOGY. 

(SECOND PAPER.) 
SPONGES. 

The sponges are the simplest of all the Metazoa, or 
many-celled animals. They are not free-swimming ani- 
mals except for a short time in their young stage. In the 
simpler sponges the body is usually vase-shaped, with the 
base fastened to some foreign object, while at the opposite 
end an opening leads into a comparatively large internal 
cavity. This cavity also communicates with the exterior 
by a multitude of minute pores which penetrate the body 
wall. In the living animal currents of water coiftinually 
pass through these smaller canals (inlialent pores ) into 
the internal cavity and thence outward through the large 
terminal opening (exhalent pore or osculum). 

The body wall of the sponge is composed of three lay- 
ers of cells. The outer layer is called the ectoderm, and 
the cells composing it are fiat and closely attached to each 
other. The inner layer is called the endoderm, and its 
cells are thicker than those of the ectoderm. Sometimes 
they are provided with flagella Hke the flagellate Protozoa. 
It is by means of these flagella that currents of water are 
produced through the internal cavity. The middle layer 
caUed the mesoderm, is composed of numerous separate 
cells lying in a jeUy-like matrix. From these mesoderm 
cells fine needles or spicules of lime or sihca often pro- 
ject out through the ectoderm. These minute sponge 
spicules are of a great variety of shapes, and they form a 
sort of skeleton for the support of the soft body mass. 

There is hardly any differentiation of parts among the 
sponges. There are no special organs for the performance 



2^00L0GY. 

of special functions. A sponge feeds by creating, with its 
flagella, water currents whicli flow in through the many 
fine pores of the body wall and out through the large ex- 
halent pore at the free end of the body. These currents 
bear fine particles of organic matter which are taken up 
by the cells lining the pores and body cavity and assimila- 
ted. There are no special organs of digestion. Each cell 
takes up food and digests it. The same water currents 
also bring oxygen to the cells and thus the sponge 
breathes. 

Keproduction is accomphshed by a process of division, 
or by a process of conjugation and subsequent division. 
In some kinds of sponges growths appear on the sides of 
the parent sponge. These increase in size and acquire a 
separate exhalent pore. These are practically branches of 
the parent sponge. Often the branching becomes very 
diffuse, and the branches become so interwoven with each 
other as to form a very complex group or colony. 

A very simple method of multiplication takes place by 
a group of cells separating from the body of the parent 
sponge, becoming inclosed in a common capsular envelope, 
and by repeated division and consequent increase in num- 
ber of cells becoming a new sponge. This is reproduction 
by ^'budding." The "buds," or small groups of cells 
which separate from the parent sponge are called gem- 
mules. 

Reproduction in the more complex way occurs as fol- 
lows: Some of the free amoeboid cells of the mesoderm 
become enlarged and spherical in form. These are the 
egg cells. Other mesodermic cells divide into many small 
cells, which are oval with a long tapering tail-like projec- 



2^00I<0GY. 

tion. These cells are active, being able to swim by the 
lashing of the tail. They are the fertiKzing cells. The 
two kinds of reproductive cells may be formed in one 
sponge ; if so they are formed at different times. Or one 
sponge may produce only egg cells, another only sperm 
cells. Conjugation takes place between a sperm cell and 
an egg cell and a fertilized' egg is formed. This egg re- 
maining in the body mass of the parent sponge divides re- 
peatedly, the new cells formed remaining together. The 
young or embryo sponge finally escapes from the body of 
the parent sponge, and lives for a short time as an active 
free swimming animal. Its body consists of an oval mass 
of cells, of which those on one side are provided ^th cilia 
or swimming hairs. The cells of the body continue to di- 
vide and to grow and the body shape gradually changes. 
The young sponge finally becomes attached to some rock, 
the body assumes the typical cylindrical shape, an aper- 
ture appears at the free end, and small perforations appear 
on the surface. The sponge becomes full grown. 

Kinds of Sponges. — Most sponges are marine but 
there are a few fresh water species. These belong to the 
genus Spongilla. In standing or sl6wly flowing water, 
Spongilla grows erect and branching, hke a shrub or minia- 
ture tree; in swift water it grows low and spreading, form- 
ing a mat over the surface to which it is attached. They 
are creamy, yellowish-brown, or even greenish in color and 
resemble some cushion -hke plant far more than any of the 
famihar animal forms. They can be distinguished from 
plants by the fact that there are no leaves in the mass, nor 
long thread-hke fibers such as compose the masses of 
pond algae. When touched with the fingers a gritty feel- 
ing is noticeable, due to the presence of many small stiff 



spicules. Reproduction takes place very actively by the 
process of budding. The budded off gemmules are spheri- 
cal in shape and the cells of each gemmule are inclosed in 
an envelope composed of siliceous spicules of peculiar 
shape. These gemmules are formed in the body substance 
of the parent sponge toward the end of the year, -and are 
set free by the decaying of that part of the body of the 
parent sponge in which they lie. They sink to the bottom 
of the pond and lie dormant until the following spring. 
Then they develop rapidly by repeated division and 
growth. 

In general, sponges are classified according to the char- 
acter of the skeleton. In one group are put all those sponges 
which have a skeleton of calcareous spicules, and this group 
is called the Calcarea. All other sponges are grouped as 
Non-Calcarea, the members of this group either have no 
skeleton at all or have a skeleton composed of siliceous 
spicules (silicious sponges) or of spongin fibers (kera- 
tose sponges). The "sponge" of the bathroom is simply 
the skeleton of a large sponge or group of sponges. It is 
composed of spongin, a tough horny substance allied to 
silk in its chemical composition. These sponges grow es- 
pecially abundantly in the Mediterranean and Red Seas, 
and in the Atlantic Ocean off the Florida reefs, and on the 
shores of the Bahama Islands. The sponges are pulled up 
by divers, or by means of hooks or dredges. The living 
matter soon dies and decays, leaving the horny skeleton. 
The most beautiful sponges are those with siliceous skele- 
tons. The fine needles and threads of glass, arranged of- 
ten in dehcate and intricate pattern, make these sponges 
objects of real beauty. 



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^OOI/OGY. 

HYDRA. 

As a type pt the group which includes the Polyps, 
Corals and Jelly-fishes we will take the common Hydra. 
This animal appears as a tiny white or greenish gelatinous 
particle attached to some submerged stone or bit. of wood 
or aquatic plant in quiet water in ponds. If such objects 
be scraped and the material collected be put in a glass jar 
with some of the pond water, after a few days the Hydras 
wiU generally be found clinging to the sides of the jar. 

A Hydra has a simple cylindrical body attached by one 
end to some aquatic object. The other free end is con- 
tracted so as to be conical and has a narrow opening or 
mouth. Around this opening are six or eight small wav- 
ing tentacles. The wall of the cylinder is composed of an 
outer and an inner layer of cells and a thin non- cellular 
membrane between them. The tentacles are hollow and 
are simple expansions of the body wall. The cells of the 
outer layer or ectoderm are not all alike. Some are smaller 
than the others and appear to be crowded in between the 
bases or inner ends of the larger ones. The larger cells 
have their inner ends extended at right angles with the 
rest of the cell into pointed prolongations which are very 
contractile and are called muscle processes. Other 
cells of the ectoderm are very irregular in shape and are 
more sensitive and Irritable than the other cells. These 
are called nerve cells. At the base or foot of the Hydra 
are granular cells which secrete a sticky substance which 
enables the Hydra to hold fast to the stone or weed on 
which it is found. These may be called gland cells. 

Imbedded in many of the larger ectoderm cells, es- 
pecially those of the tentacles, are small oval sacs, in each 
of which lies folded or coiled a fine long thread. These 
cells are the lasso cells. When the tentacles touch one 



of the 8mall animals which serve Hydra as food, these fine 
threads shoot out from the sacs and so poison or sting the 
prey that it is paralyzed. The tentacles then contract and 
bend inward, forcing the captured animal into the mouth 
opening in the center of the circle of tentacles. Through 
the mouth opening the prey enters the body cavity of 
Hydra and is digested by the cells lining this cavity. 

The cells lining the body cavity constitute the endo- 
derm and are mostly large and prolonged inward into 
blunt pseudopods or slender flagella projecting into the 
body cavity. In addition to these cells there are in the 
endoderm, especially near the mouth, long slender granu- 
lar cells which act as glands and secrete a digesti'^ fluid. 
The food taken in through the mouth disintegrates in the 
body cavity which may be called the digestive cavity. The 
digestive fluid acts upon it and breaks it up into small 
parts which are probably seized by the pseudopods of the 
endoderm cells and are taken into the body protoplasm of 
these cells, whence, after being elaborated, it is passed on 
to the ectoderm cells. 

UnUke the sponge, Hydra, is not permanently attached. 
It can loosen itself from its place of attachment and move 
by a slow creeping or gliding movement to some other 
spot. Even when attached it is constantly changing its 
form, now extending itself longitudinally and bending 
around in search of food, or, if disturbed suddenly, con- 
tracting to a compact globular mass. Like Volvox and the 
sponges, it has two methods of multiphcation. In the 
simpler way, there appears on the outer surface of the 
body a little bud which is composed at first of ectoderm 
cells only; but soon it is evident that it is a budding, or 
outpushing, of the whole body wall, ectoderm, endoderm 
and middle membrane. In a few hours the bud has six or 






^OOI/ OGY. 

p- 

eight tiny blunt tentacles, a moutli opening appears at the 
free end, and the little Hydra breaks off from the parent 
and leads an independent existence. 

In the more complex way two kinds of special repro- 
ductive cells are produced by each individual, viz., large, 
inactive spherical egg cells, and smaU active sperm cells, 
each with an oval part or head (the nucleus) and a slender 
tapering tail-like part (consisting of cytoplasm). The egg 
cell lies inclosed in a layer of thin surrounding cells, which 
compose a capsule for it. When the egg ceU is ready for 
fertilization this capsule breaks, and one of the active 
sperm ceUs finds its way to and fuses with the egg cells. 
The fertilized egg cell now divides into several cells en- 
closed by a hard capsule, and thus protected, the embryo 
falls to the bottom, and, after lying dormant for awhile, 
develops into a Hydra. 

In Hydra we find a more complex organization than 
in the sponges. Division of labor among the cells is more 
pronounced. Some of the cells devote themselves 
specially to food- taking; some to the digestion of the food; 
some are specially contractile and on them the move- 
ments of the body depend; some are specially sensitive 
and enable the animal to feel. In the lasso cells — those 
with stinging threads, there is a high degree of speciahza- 
tion. 

Hydroids. — The individuals of Hydra usually hve dis- 
tinct from each other. There is no tree -like colony, as 
with the sponges. But most other polyps do Uve in this 
colonial manner. The new polyps which develop as buds 
from the parent remain attached to the parent. They in 
turn produce new polyps which remain attached, so that 
in time a branching tree -like colony is formed. These 
branching forms known as hydroids are marine and are 
often mistaken for sea- weeds by collectors of sea mosses. 



^OOI/OGY. 

Jelly Fishes. — These polyps develop into bell- shaped 
structures called medusae. These medusae consist of a 
soft gelatinous bell, or umbrella-shaped body, with a short 
clapper or stem ( the manubrium) which has a mouth 
opening at its free end. This mouth opens into a digestive 
cavity at the base of the manubrium. The digested food 
is distributed to the umbrella portion by means of radiat- 
ing canals (gastro-vascular canals). The margin of 
the umbrella is suppKed with a variable number of tactile 
tentacles and the manubrium generally has four short 
oral tentacles. Around this same margin a ring of nerve 
tissue has been found and some organs which appear to be 
sensitive to light and sound. 

Sperm cells and egg cells are produced by different 
medusae. Fertilization ta^es place and the fertilized egg 
develops into a small oval free swimming embryo called a 
planula, which finally attaches itself to a bit of stone or 
wood or sea -weed, and grows into a simple cylindrical 
polyp very similar to the hydra. From this, new polyps 
form by budding, and gradually a tree-hke colony is 
formed. Some of the polyps divide transversely into a 
number of saucer- shaped segments piled one above the 
other Hke a pile of saucers. The top segments break off 
one at a time, floating away and change into medusae. 
Thus there is in the Mf e of the polyp what is called an al- 
ternation of generations. There are two kinds of in- 
dividuals belonging to the same species. The appearance 
of one kind of animal in two forms is called dimorphism. 
This group shows still greater complexity than the Hydra 
or Hydroids. 

Corals.— The animals we know as corals are polyps 
which Hve in enormous colonies and which exist only in 
the true polyp form, never producing medusae. They 
form a firm skeleton of lime (calcium carbonate), and after 



''■"^m t. > 



^OOI,OGY. 

death these skeletons persist, and because of their abun- 
dance and close massing form great reefs or banks and 
islands in the warmer oceans. More than two thousand 
kinds of living corals are known and their skeletons offer 
a great variety of structures. Brain coral, organ-pipe 
coral, the red coral from Italy and Sicily, used in jewelry, 
and the sea-pens and sea- fans are among the better known 
kinds of coral skeletons. 

Siphonophora.— These are elongate forms of jelly- 
fishes composed of several different kinds of individuals 
forming a floating or free swimming colony. Sometimes 
there is a slender, flexible, central stem several feet long, 
to which are attached thousands of medusae and polyp 
individuals, each individual specially adapted for some one 
duty. The central stem is a greatly elongated individual 
polyp whose upper end is dilated into a float filled with 
air. This individual holds up the whole colony. Grouped 
around the stem just below the float are many bell-shaped 
polyps which alternately open and close, and by thus 
drawing In and expelling water from their cavities impel 
the whole colony through the water. These medusae are 
without tentacles and take no food and produce no young. 
Their sole office is that of locomotion. From the end of 
the central stem rises a host of structures some provided 
with long tentacles furnished with batteries of stinging 
cells. These polyps are the food-getters for the colony. 
Other polyps are provided with long sensitive threads. 
These are the sense organs or sense individuals of the 
colony. Finally there are two other kinds of individuals 
which produce the egg-cells and sperm cells. Their sole 
office is that of reproduction. In this group it is evident 
that division of labor and differentiation of parts is more 
pronounced than in any other form that we have studied. 

10 



^OOlvOGY. 





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11 



THE EAUTH-WORM. 

The common earth-worm (sometimes called angle- 
worm) is generally taken as a type of the Vermes or 
worms. The body is cylindrical, shows well-marked dorsal 
and ventral surfaces, and is jointed, each joint being known 
as a seg-ment, or somite. Anteriorly it tapers to a point, 
and the head region bearing the mouth is ill- defined, yet 
serves admirably for tunneling the soil in which the worms 
hve. In this process the animal is also aided by bristles or 
setal, which project from the body wall of almost every 
segment and may be stuck into the earth to afford a foot- 
hold. Inspection of the internal anatomy shows a weU- 
marked bilateral symmetry, that is, the animal has a right 
and left side, and the organs of the right side are repeated 
upon the left side. 

Food and Digestive System.— Earth-worms are 
nocturnal animals, seldom coming to the surface during the 
day, except when forced to do so by the filling of their 
tunnels with water (as after a rain), or when pursued by 
enemies. At night they usually emerge partially, keeping 
the posterior end of the body within the burrow, and thus 
they scour the surface areas for food, which they appear to 
locate by a feeble sense of smell. They also frequently 
extend their habitations, and in so doing swallow enormous 
quantities of earth from which they digest out any nutri- 
tive substances, leaving the indigestible matter in coiled 
"castings" at the entrance of their burrows. In thus mix- 
ing the soil and rendering it porous they are of great service 
to the agriculturist. 

Although earthworms are omnivorous they manifest a 
preference for certain kinds of food, notably cabbage, 
celery and meat, which indicates that they have some 
sense of taste. All these substances are carried within 

12 



their retreafes and devoured, or are used to block tlie en- 
trance during the day. The food thus obtained is digested 
by a system composed of several parts, each of which is 
modified for a particular part in the process. The mouth 
is on the under side of the first segment and is covered by 
a dorsal projection called the prostomium. The mouth 
leads into a muscular pharynx whose action enables a 
worm to retain its hold on various objects until swallowed. 
The pharynx narrows down into a slender oesophagus 
which has three pairs of bag-like structures (the front 
pair, oesophageal pouches, the next two pairs, calcif- 
erous glands) which secrete a milky, limy fluid."' The 
oesophagus leads into a thin-walled crop, which acts as a 
storehouse for the food until it is ready to be received by 
the thick-walled gizzard, whose muscular walls reduce it 
to a fine pulp, readily acted upon by the digestive fluids. 
These, resembling in their action the pancreative juice of 
higher animals, are poured out from the walls of the in- 
testine into which the food now makes its way; and as it 
courses down this relatively simple tube the nutritive por- 
tions are absorbed while the indigestible matters are cast 
away. The whole digestive system consists of a straight 
alementary canal running through the middle of the body 
from the mouth to the anu. Most of this canal is intes- 
tine, only a small portion at the anterior end being differ- 
entiated into the other parts mentioned above. There are 
no highly specialized glands connected with the intestine 
but a ridge called the typhlosole runs along the roof of 
the intestine and this, besides increasing the amount of 
absorptive surface, is filled with helpatic or digestive 
cells. 

Circulatory System. — In aU the groups of animals 
we have thus far studied, the digested food is carried over 

13 



the body by a simple process of absorption; but in the 
earthworm the division of labor between the different 
parts of the body is more perfect, and a definite blood 
system acts as a distributing apparatus. This consists 
primarily of a dorsal vessel lying along the dorsal sur- 
face of the alimentary canal from which numerous branches 
are given off to the body wall, and to the digestive system 
through which they ramify in every direction before again 
being collected into a ventral vessel lying below the di- 
gestive tract. In some of the anterior segments, those in 
the region of the oesophagus, a few of the connecting ves- 
sels are muscular and unbranched, and during life pulsate 
like so many hearts to force the blood over the body.' The 
course of the blood is forward in the dorsal vessel, through 
the "hearts" into the ventral vessel, thence into the dorsal 
by means of the small connecting branches. This blood is 
red but the color is not due to red corpuscles. The color- 
ing matter is dissolved in the hquid portion of the blood. 

Between the intestine and the body wall is a cavity 
(the body cavity) filled with a colorless fluid which is 
made to circulate by the contractions of the body wall of 
the animal in the act of crawling. This fluid contains 
many white amoeboid corpuscles and greenish glandular 
cells (cliloragogue cells ) which probably have some di- 
gestive function. In this rough fashion a considerable 
amount of nutritive material and oxygen (absorbed through 
the skin ) are distributed to various organs and wastes are 
carried to the kidneys to be removed. 

Excretion. — In every segment of the worm there is 
a pair of kidneys (nephridia), each consisting of a coiled 
tube wrapped in a mass of small blood vessels, and at its 
inner end a funnel-shaped opening (nephrostome ) com- 
municating with the body- cavity. In some unknown way 

14 



ZOOLOGY. 

the walls of the kijiney extract the waste materials from 
the blood-vessels coursing over it and pass them into its 
tubular cavity. At the same time the cilia at the mouth of 
the funnel-shaped extremity are driving a current from 
the body cavity fluids which wash the wastes to the ex- 
terior through a small excretary pore between the setae on 
the ventral surface of the segment behind that into which 
the nephrostome opens. 

Nervous System. — The nervous system of the worm 
consists first of a brain composed of two pear-shaped 
masses united together above the pharynix from which 
nerves pass out to the prostomium or upper lip and head 
segment, which are thus rendered highly sensitive. Two 
other nerves also pass out from the brain, and, coursing 
down on each side of the pharynx like a collar, unite below 
it and extend side by side along the under surface of the 
digestive system throughout its entire extent. In each 
segment the two halves of the ventral nerve-cord, as it 
is called, are united by a nerve and others are distributed 
to various organs. 

In its relation to the outside world the chief source of 
information comes to the earth-worm through the sense of 
touch, for definite organs of sight, taste and smell are but 
feebly developed, while ears appear to be entirely absent. 

Reproduction. — The earth-worm has two sets of re- 
productive organs, namely male and female organs, that is, 
the animal is an lierniaplirodite. In the region of the 
tenth and eleventh segments are two pairs of small flat- 
tened glands, the testes. These are connected with the 
three pairs of large sac-like seminal vescicles which 
arch over the oesophagus. The testes also communicate 
with the exterior through long tubes the vasa def erentia 
n the fifteenth segment. The testes give rise to the male 

15 



ZOOI/OGY. 

•eproductive elements, sperm cells, which fertilize the 
>va after they and the ova have both passed into the egg- 
3ase. The ovaries which produce the egg cells or ova 
ire glandular paired bodies attached to the posterior waU 
of the septum between the twelfth and thirteenth seg- 
ments. The ova pass to the exterior through a short 
eunnel-shaped tube, oviduct, opening on the fourteenth 
segment. Still another set of organs are found in the tenth 
and eleventh segments, two pairs of sac-hke bodies the 
seminal receptacles which receive the male reproduc- 
tive elements during copulation. During copulation the 
individuals rest with their heads in opposite directions and 
their ventral surfaces together. The openings of the vasa 
deferentia of each coming in contact with the openings of 
the seminal receptacles of the other, the sperm cells of 
each pass over into the seminal receptacles of the other. 

During the breeding season there is a conspicuous 
whitish girdle (the chteUum) around the anterior end of 
the worm in the neighborhood of the reproductive organs. 
When the eggs are ready to be discharged the clitellum 
secrets a substance which hardens and forms a collar-like 
structure about the body of the worm. This collar is now 
• slipped forward. As it passes over openings of the ovi- 
ducts the eggs are discharged into it, and as it passes over 
the ninth and tenth segments it receives the sperm cells 
from the seminal receptacles. It now passes entirely over 
the head. The structure with the eggs and sperm cells be- 
comes closed at both ends, thus forming a horny capsule 
which lies in the earth until the young worms emerge. 
Only a part of the eggs develop in each capsule, the rest 
being used as food for the growing young. 

LEECHES. 

These animals are familiar to boys who go in swim- 
ming in the small streams of the country, and are known 

16 



2?OOI,OGY. 

by them as "blood suckers." The body of a leech is 
flattened dorso-ventrally, instead of being cylindrical as in 
the earth-worm, and tapers at both ends. In the live 
animal the body can be greatly elongated and narrowed or 
much shortened and broadened. It consists of many 
segments and bears at each end on the ventral surface a 
sucker, the one at the posterior end being larger. These 
suckers enable the leech to cling firmly to other animals. 
The mouth is at the front end of the body on the ventral 
surface and provided with sharp jaws. Leeches Uve mostly 
on the blood of other animals which they suck from the 
body. The common leech fastens itself upon its victim by 
means of its suckers, then cuts the skin, fastens its oral 
sucker over the wound and pumps away until ft has com- 
pletely gorged itself with blood, distending enormously its 
elastic body, when it loosens its hold and drops off. Its 
biting and sucking cause very little pain, and in olden days 
physicians used the leeches when they wanted to "bleed" 
a person. A common European species of leech much 
used for this purpose is known as the "medicinal leech." 
All leeches are hermaphroditic, that is, both sexes are not 
distinct but each individual produces both sperm- cells and 
egg- cells. Most of the leeches lay their eggs in small 
pockets or cocoons. This cocoon is dropped in the soil on 
the banks of a pond or stream so that the young may have 
a moist but not too wet environment. The leeches and 
earthworms, because of their resemblance to each other, 
are put in a class by themselves, the Oligocliaeta 
(ol-i-go-ke'-ta). 

FLAT-WORMS. 

The flat-worms include a large number of forms 
which vary much in shape and habits. They are all, how- 
ever, characteristically flat. Some are active, free-hving 

17 



2POOI,OGY. 

animals, as the planarians, while many live as parasites in 
the alimentary canal of other animals, as the Kver- fluke of 
the sheep and the tape-worm of other animals. 

Planarians.— The fresh-water planarians, common 
in the mud at the bottom of ponds, are thin, and rather 
broad, tapering from in front backwards. A pair of black 
pigment spots, on the upper surface near the front, serve 
as eyes ; the mouth is on the under surface a little behind 
the middle of the body and opens into an alimentary canal 
of many branches. There is no anal opening as the 
branches of the alimentary canal are all closed at their 
ends. The nervous system consists of a pair of gangha 
near the front of the body and two nerve trunks extending 
backward and giving off many branches. 

Tape-worms. — There are numerous species of tape- 
worms hving in the bodies of vertebrate animals. In the 
adult stage the tape-worms Uve in the ahmentary canal, 
holding on to its inner surface by hook-Uke cMnging or- 
gans and being nourished by the already digested food by 
which they are bathed. In the young or larval stage tape- 
worms live in other parts of the body of the host, and 
usually, indeed, in other hosts not of the same species as 
the host of the adult worm. The common tape -worm 
which infests man (Taenia solium ) may be taken as an 
example of the group. In the adult condition it is found 
attached by the head end to the walls of the intestine and 
is in the form of a narrow segmented ribbon two or three 
yards in length. The head is small and provided with 
many hooks. Behind the head the segments grow wider 
and wider and there may be as many as 850 of these seg 
ments called proglottids. There is no mouth or ali- 
mentary canal, the liquid food being simply taken through 
the skin. Each proglottid produces sperm-cells and egg- 

18 



2?OOI/OGY. 

cells; one by one as the eggs ripen the terminal proglottids 
break off and pass from the body with the excreta. If one 
of these escaped proglottids or the eggs from it are eaten 
by a pig, the eggs develop in the alimentary canal of the 
pig, bore their way through the walls of the canal and 
lodge in the muscles. Here they increase greatly in size 
and develop into a sort of rounded bladder-like sac filled 
with Hquid. In this stage it is called a bladder- worm. 
If the flesh of the pig be eaten by man without first being 
sufiiciently cooked to kill these worms, they will lodge in 
the intestine of man and develop into the long ribbon-hke 
adult form of tape-worm. Our common domestic animals 
are often infested with tape-worms. There is always an 
alternation of hosts, the larval form hving in the*so-called 
intermediate host. The intermediate hosts of the dog 
tapeworms are rabbits, sheep, mice, etc. Planarians and 
tape-worms belong to the class Plathelminthes (plat-hel- 
min'-thez) or flat- worms. 

ROUND WORMS. 

The round worms are slender, smooth, cylindrical 
worms, pointed at both ends and very long in proportion 
to their diameter. 

Trichina spiralis.— This terrible parasite which pro- 
duces the disease trichinosis is a round worm of which 
very much is heard. This is a small worm which in the 
adult condition lives in the intestine of man as well as in 
the pig and other mammals. The young, which are born 
alive, burrow through the walls of the intestine, and are 
either carried by the blood, or force their way all over the 
body, lodging usually in the muscles. Here they form for 
themselves little cells or cysts in which they lie. The 
forming of these thousands of tiny cysts injures the 
muscles and causes great pain, sometimes death, to the 

19 



host). Such infested muscle or flesh is said to be "trichi* 
nosed," and the flesh of a trichinosed human subject has 
been estimated to contain 100,000,000 encysted worms. To 
complete the development of the encysted and sexless 
Trichinae, the infested flesh must be eaten by another 
animal in which the worm can live, e. g. the flesh of a man, 
by a pig or a rat and that of a pig by man. In such a case 
the cysts are dissolved by the digestive juices, the worms 
escape, develop reproductive organs and produce young, 
which then migrate into the muscles and induce trichinosis 
as before. But, however badly trichinosed a piece of pork 
may be, thorough cooking of it will kill the encysted 
Trichinae, so it may be eaten with impunity. Some people 
are accustomed to eat ham, which is simply smoked pork, 
without cooking it, and in such cases there is always great 
danger of trichinosis. 

Vinegar-eels (Anguillula) are round worms found 
in weak vinegar. Other -species of the same genus live 
in water or moist ground. The hair-worms (Gordius) 
which are believed by some people to be horse-hairs 
dropped into water and turned into these animals, are often 
found abundantly in pools of rain, and it is sometimes said 
that these worms come down with the rain. They have in 
reality come from the bodies of insects in which they pass 
their young or larval stages as parasites. Pin-worms 
parasitic in the alimentary canal of rnan and many animals, 
and the guinea-worm, one of the worst parasites of man 
living in the cellular tissues beneath the skin of man, and 
often reaching a length of six feet, are also examples of 
the round- worms or Nemathelminthes (ne-ma-thel- 
min'-thez). 

Wheel Animalcules or Rotifers.— Specimens of 
these may be found in almost any stagnant water. They 



20 



are only about Vioo of an inch long but when viewed un- 
der a compound microscope show great complexity of 
structure. They may be known by the constant whirling 
or rather vibrating, circlet or wheel of ciUa at the larger or 
head end of the body. They are transparent and all the 
internal organs can be readily seen. Especially noticeable 
is the "mastax" or gizzard-like masticating apparatus in 
the alimentary canal. 



Branch 



Vermes 



Classification of Vermes. 

Class Examnle 

{Leeches 
Earthworms 



Olig-oeliaetae 

(Segmented highly 
organized worms ) 



Platlielmintlies. 

(Flat- worms with soft 
bodies and without 
true segmentation ) 



N^emathelminthes . • . 

(Round or cyhndrical 
worms; unsegmented 



Planarians 
Liver-fluke 
Tape -worm 



■ Trichina 
Guinea -worm 
Pin- worm 
Vinegar- eels 
Hair-worms 



Rotif era J Wheel animalcule 

(Microscopic segmented) I 



21 



OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

(SECOND PAPER.) 

1. Describe the simplest form of a sponge. 

2. How do sponges eat, breathe? 

3. Describe the three methods of reproduction. 

4. Where are fresh water sponges found and how may 
they be recognized? 

5. How are sponges classified? 

6. Give a brief description of Hydra. 

7. How does it feed? How does it reproduce? 

8. In what respects is Hydra more highly specialized 
than the sponges? « 

9. What is a hydroid? 

10. Describe a jelly-fish. 

11. Describe the alternation of generations occuring in 
its reproduction. 

12. What is a coral? 

13. In what respects are the colonial jelly-fishes more 
highly specialized than any forms we have studied thus far. 

14. Describe the digestive system of the earth-worm; 
the circulatory system, the kidneys. 

15. How do earth-worms reproduce? 

16. Give a brief description of a leech. 

17. Give the Mfe history of the tape-worm. 

18. Give the hfe history of Trichina. 

19. Name other common round worms 

20. How are worms classified? 



22 



PHYSICS. 

(SECOND PAPER.) 

''Knowledge may give weight, but the application 
makes it valuable.'' 

WORK AND ENERGY. 

Work is the overcoming of resistance of any kind. It 
signifies a change of position and is not dependent upon 
the time taken to do it. The amount of work done in a 
given time depends upon the energy which performs it. 

Maxwell defines energy as "the capacity for doing 
work." No single atom of matter is destitute of energy; 
its manifestation depends upon many circumstances, 
among which we mention only the advantages of % time, 
space, and position. 

If energy is not brought into action it is styled Poten- 
tial energy, and it is in this sense that we have asserted, 
above, the universality of energy. 

Kinetic energy is that which is possessed in conse- 
quence of motion imparted by Force, which may be de- 
fined as that which causes a change of position. "An un- 
balanced force always does work," 1. e., an unresisted 
force. Two systems of measuring work are in use— the 
practical and the metric. 

In the practical system the unit of measure is the 
kinetic energy imparted in raising vertically a weight of 
one pound to the height of one foot. To this unit is given 
the name of foot-pound. 

In the metric- system used chiefly in electric and 
scientific apphcations, the unit of measure is the Kilogram- 
meter, which equals 7.23 foot-pounds, representing the 
kinetic energy imparted in elevating 1 K. to the height of 
1 meter. 



PHYSICS. 

Kinetic energy is possessed by every moving bod; 
Potential energy, latent in a body at rest, becomes Kinei 
the moment that motion is imparted to the mass, hen 
space is a necessary element in the conversion of Potenti 
into Kinetic energy. 

In the C. G. S. System, (centimeter-gram-seconds 
the force which gives to 1 gram an acceleration of 1 cent 
meter in 1 second of time is called a Dyne, and the woi 
done or Kinetic energy developed by a force of 1 Dyi 
through a distance of 1 centimeter is called an Erg. 

Force used in the development of Kinetic energy 
obtained for practical purposes from natural sources, j 
water, wind, steam, man and animals, and explosive 
Tlie mathematical relations of force to weight and oth( 
elements are founded upon the Laws of moving bodie 
In the few formulae given below: w, represents weighi 
f, force J s, space; v, velocity; r, resistance; Ek,Kineti 
energy; Ep, potential energy; fp, foot-pound; E, the Erg 
D, the Dyne. 

The strength of a man acting uniformly for a fixe 
period is estimated to be suflacient to raise 10 pounds, 1 
feet in 1 second, continuously for 10 hours. 

The estimated strength of a horse (or "horse-power" 
is suflacient to raise 33,000 pounds one foot per minute. 

The force exerted by water is dependent upon gravity 
and height of the fall. 

The force exerted by wind is governed by its velocitj 

The force of explosives, as gunpowder, etc., depend 
upon the quality of cohesion of particles, density of stor 
age and other mechanical considerations. 

> The general rule for finding the power expended i] 
performing work is: Multiply the weight of the mas 
moved in pounds, by the vertical height. 



PHYSICS. 

A Dynamometer is an instrument used for measuring 
the force exerted by any agent. An ordinary spring bal- 
ance is an illustration. 

MACHINES. 

A Machine is an instrument by the use of which an 
external force may be controlled and utilized. 

Machines cannot create power nor increase its quantity. 
The four chief advantages which we obtain by the use of 
machinery are thus epitomized: (1) the exchange of speed 
for force or intensity; (2) the exchange of intensity for 
speed; (3) the use of other forces instead of our own; (4) 
the change of direction, and gain in the distance in which 
power may act. 

The General Law of machines is based upon the rela- 
tion existing between the power and the distance through 
which it moves. Let F represent the force (or power), R, 
the resistance (or weight), D, the distance through which 
F moves, and d, the distance through which R moves; 
then the above rule may be stated in proportion, thus : 
F:d :: W : D. Hence, FD=Wd, i. e., the ratio of the 
power to the weight=:the ratio of their distances of motion. 

All machines, however complicated in their structure, 
are formed from six "mechanical powers," as they are 
erroneously called, because they are not powers but in- 
struments for rendering power available. These six are 
named in the order of simplicity: (1) the Lever; (2) In- 
clined plane; (3) Pulley; (4) Wedge; (5) Screw; (6) Wheel 
and Axle. 

The first three are also called the primitive. Simple 
machines; the last three, the derivative or Compound ma- 
chines, because they are formed by combinations of the 
first three. 



PHYSICS. 

A Ijever consists of a bar moving upon a pivot or 
point of support. The portions of the lever extending on 
each side of the pivot are called the Arms, and the pivot is 
called the Fulcrum. The Power Arm is the perpendicular 
distance from the fulcrum to the hne in which the power 
acts. The Weight Arm is the perpendicular distance 
from the fulcrum to the Une in which the weight acts. 

Levers are divided into first, second, and third classes, 
depending upon the position of the fulcrum, in relation to 
the power and weight. 

In the first class the fulcrum is between the power and 
weight; in the second class the weight is between the 
power and fulcrum, and in the third class the power is be- 
tween the weight and fulcrum. 

A lever will be in equihbrium, or balanced, when the 
weight and power are in inverse ratio to their distances 
from the fulcrum, in compliance with the general law. 
Hence when any three of the elements of the lever are 
known the fourth may be found by Simple Proportion. 

A Compound Lever consists of two or more simple 
levers so arranged that the short arm of one acts upon the 
long arm of the other. By this arrangement, we may say 
the force applied is multiphed. A hay -scale is an illustra- 
tion, as are platform scales. 

The general law of machines may be adapted to the 
lever. A given power will support a weight as many times 
as great as itself as the power arm is times as long as the 
weight arm. 

Practical Questions.— The power arm of a levei 
is eight feet long, the weight arm three feet. (1) How 
long is the lever if it be one of the first class? ( 2) Of the 
second class? (3) Of the third cIbss? Ans. (1 ) 11 ft. (2) g 



PHYSICS. 

ft. ( 3) By conditions of problem it cannot be a lever of 
third class. 

^. A lever is ten feet long with its fulcrum in the mid- 
dle. A power of 30 lb. is appMed at one end. (a) How 
great a load at the other end can it support, (b) How 
great a load can it lift? (a) 30 lb. (b) Any weight less 
than 30 lb. 

The Inclined Plane consists of a bar having both 
ends supported on a fixed point, but with a difference in 
level. Its principle of action is that of the Lever; the en- 
tire length of the bar is the long arm, and the vertical 
height of the elevated end, the short arm. In this machine 
the power is to the weight as the height of the pl^e is to 
its length. It is on this principle that a wagon road on the 
side of a mountain or steep hill should never ascend di- 
rectly, but obliquely. ( Why?) 

The Wedge consists of two inclined planes placed 
base to base, the head of the wedge corresponding to the 
combined heights of the planes, and the friction surface to 
their length. Its effectiveness depends upon the quantity 
of friction, the relative length in proportion to thickness 
of head, and force of percussion exerted upon it. 

The Screw is, like the wedge, a modification of the 
incMned plane. It is so familiar an object that it seems 
scarcely necessary to say that it consists of an inclined 
plane wound around a cylinder having the height of the 
plane as the line of revolution. The ratio of the power to 
the weight equals that of the distance between the threads 
to the circumference described by the power. The advan- 
tage in the use of the Screw as an apparatus for over- 
coming resistance is found in two facts. 

(1) By using a movable lever as the point of applica- 
tion, thereby in effect, lengthening the long arm, the 



:-^ 



PHYSICS. 

"work" performed by a given force is largely increased, 
though at the expense of time and space. 

(2) With a movable lever, also, the Screw can be used 
in positions not otherwise accessible. 

The Jack-Screw, used for raising buildings, etc.,- is a 
familiar example of this machine. 

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS. 

1. A Screw has «even threads for every inch in length. 
If the lever is six inches long and the power 50 lb. what 
resistance may be overcome by it? Ans. 50 : w :: ^/t in. : 12 
in.X3.1416=13194.72 lb. (i. e. any weight less than this may 
be moved). 

2. How great a pressure will be exerted by a power of 
15 lb. applied to a screw whose head is ^ of an inch in 
circumference and whose thread are Vs of an inch apart? 
Ans. 15 : W :: Ve : M=67>^ lbs. 

The Pulley is a wheel revolving with, or upon, a pivot 
and set in motion by means of a cord passing over its edge, 
usually grooved. The ratio of the power to the weight is 
equal to that of the two divisions of the cord, usually called 
the long and the short arms of the puUey. As in the case 
of the compound lever, the combination of two or more 
pulleys in one system called a system of "block and tackle" 
increases the efficiency of the apparatus, and its faciUty in 
use where direction of movement is to be changed from 
the horizontal to vertical, or vice -versa. A given power 
will support a weight as many times as great as itself as 
there are parts of the cord supporting the movable block. 

W=PXN. 

1. What power will support a weight of 50 lb. the 
pulley being fixed? Ans. 50 lb. 

2. What power will support a weight of 50 lbs. the 
pulleys being movable? Ans. 25 lb. 



Physics. 

Tlie Wheel and Axle is a modification of the Pulley, 
too familiar to need description. Its eflaciency as a trans- 
ferrer of energy depends upon the relative lengths of the 
distance passed in one revolution of the Wheel's circum- 
ference and that of the Axle. The Radius, or the Circum- 
ference of the Wheel; is taken as the long arm, and the 
same elements of the Axle, the short arm, corresponding 
in their relation to the elements of the simple lever, and 
governed by the same rules. When the wheel of one in- 
strument "gears," or is connected by bands or belts with 
the Axle, we have a Compound Wheel and Axle. 

It will be readily understood that in no system of ma- 
chines can energy be transformed, or transferred without 
some loss, so that, so far from increasing the product of 
force, a decrease is in fact caused by what is known as 
friction. 

Friction is the adherence of two surfaces of the same 
or unlike character having in varied degrees the quahty of 
roughness. This quahty is made use of in the construction 
of friction wheels where it would be inconvenient to em- 
ploy other means of transferring energy. 

LIQUIDS. 

A Liquid is that form of matter in which the mole- 
cules, on account of their slight cohesion, move freely up- 
on each other and in all directions. 

Hydrostatics is that branch of science which treats 
of hquids at rest; Hydrauhcs or Hydrokinetics, of hquids 
in motion. 

The pressure of liquids differs from that of solids in 
the fact that it is transmitted in all directions, while that 
of solids is in the hne of gravity or in the axis of direction 
of the impelUng force. It is upon this principle that ma- 
chines are used to enable us to make use of the elasticity 



PHYSICS* 

of liquids, as in the hydraulic jack for raising buildings, the 
hydraulic press used in baling cotton, etc. The total pres- 
sure which is exerted upon the interior of a containing 
vessel is equal to the area multiplied by the pressure per 
unit of area. 

In a fluid at rest, the pressure is due to its weight, and 
is in proportion to its depth except so far as modified by 
compressibihty, and this is so very slight that it is discarded 
in Pascal's principle: "At any point of a fluid at rest the 
pressure is equal in all directions." 

The Hyrdostatic press is constructed upon this prin- 
ciple, and upon the law that the pressure of a column of 
liquid is proportioned to its height and not to its bulk or 
quantity. By the use of machines constructed upon this 
principle, an immense force may be exerted by a column 
of water so small as to seem entirely disproportionate to 
the result obtained. The hydrostatic press consists es- 
sentially of a small force pump whose piston is worked by 
a lever, and a large cyhnder whose piston acts against a 
flat metallic plate, the pump and cylinder being connected 
by a tube. By raising the long arm of the lever water is 
drawn into the cylinder of the forcing pump; the lever is 
then lowered and the water is forced into the larger cylin- 
der, the piston of which is raised and forced against the 
body to be compressed. The pressure exerted by this 
pump is as many times as great as the force employed as 
the area of a cross -section of the larger cylinder is greater 
than that of the smaller. For example, if a pressure of 
500 pounds is exerted upon the water beneath the piston 
in the smaller cylinder, and if the larger cylinder has a 
sectional area 500 times greater than that of the smaller, 
then the pressure exerted by the small piston will produce 

8 



PHYSICS. 

a pressure of 500x500 pounds, or 250,000 pounds upon the 
lower surface of the larger piston. 

The downward pressure of liquids is independent of 
the shape of the containing vessel, but is governed by the 
area of the bottom, therefore the same pressure on the 
bottom will be exerted by columns of water in vessels 
having the shapes of a cyhnder, funnel, triangular prism, 
etc., if the areas of the bases and the heights of the column 
are equal. Hence to find the amount of the pressure of 
any hquid upon the bottom of any vessel: Multiply the 
area of the base by the perpendicular depth of the liquid 
and this by the weight of a cubic foot. 

The lateral pressure at any point in a hquid is propor- 
tional to the perpendicular depth below the surface. Hence 
to find the pressure upon the side of a containir% vessel: 
Multiply the area of the side by one-half the depth of the 
vessel and this product by the weight of a cubic foot of 
the hquid. It is by the application of this principle that 
the amount of pressure which artificial embankments for 
the restraint of water courses, the strength of material in 
lock-gates, etc., is computed. 

Theoretically the surface of any hquid, as water, is level; 
in reahty it partakes of the curvature of the earth. For 
small distances this is so slight that it cannot be appre- 
hended, and therefore the sea level is taken as a standard. 
Flowing water will always tend to seek the rise or fall to 
an exact level in every part of its channel. It is owing to 
this fact that springs, weUs and artesian fountains are 
made available to man. 

Connected with the principles involved in the theories 
of hydrostatic pressure is Flotation. This depends upon 
Buoyancy, a name given to the force by which a sohd body 
is pressed upward by a hquid into which it is plunged; 



PHYSICS. 

Archimedes's Laws or Principles cover this action: (1)A 
solid immersed in a liquid is pressed upward with a force 
equal to the weight of liquid displaced by it. (2) The 
quantity or volume of liquid displaced will equal the 
volume of the immersed part of the solid. (3) A body will 
float in "EquiUbrio," i. e., it will remain at the point to 
which it is immersed, when the downward force of gravity 
is equal to the upward pressure of the liquid in which it is 
placed. (4) Buoyancy is in proportion to the relative den- 
sity or specific gravity of the body and the hquid in which 
it is immersed. 

Equilil)rium of Liquids.— If water is poured into a 
number of vessels that are connected by means of a tube 
it will rise to the same height in each vessel. Water con- 
veyed in pipes rises as high as its source. This principle 
of liquids is illustrated by the artesian well. The crust of 
the earth is composed of different strata, some of which al- 
low water to pass freely through them while others pre- 
vent its passage. These strata have sometimes a basin 
shaped bed— water collects in the porous layers, is sub- 
jected to pressure due to the height of the elevated ends 
and consequently rises through an opening m. fcb© lower 
part of the basin. 

Hydraulics, or Hydrokinetics, is that branch of 
physical science which treats of liquids in motion. The 
first title is derived from the Greek words "hudor," water, 
and ''aulos," a pipe. It considers the flow of water through 
orifices in the sides of reservoirs, through pipes, in rivers 
and artificial channels, and in the operation of all machinery 
in which flowing water is the motive power. Observation 
and experiment are the sources of our information, from 
which are deduced certain laws which constitute the science 
of Hydrokinetics. 

10 



PHYSICS. 

A liquid will jet out from an aperture in a reservoir 
with a velocity proportionate to the vertical depth of the 
opening below the surface. This explains why the velocity 
from apertures at different heights in the same stand-pipe 
is greater, the nearer the apertures is to the bottom. 

Velocities from lateral aperture will be equal to that 
acquired in falhng perpendicularly through a space which 
equals the height of the aperture. A body falling 16 ft. in 
the first second has acquired a velocity of 32 ft. (see Falling 
Bodies), and this will be the initial velocity from a lateral 
jet 16 ft. below the surface. 

The velocity with which a Hquid will spurt from dif- 
ferent openings in a vessel, is as the square roots of the 
depths of the apertures. If a stand-pipe has t'v^ apertures 
in its side, one four feet below the surface, the other six- 
teen feet, the velocity of the jets respectively will be in the 
ratio of i/T to i/16, or as 2 to 4; hence the flow from the 
lower jet will be twice as rapid as from the upper. 

Theoretically, the quantity of water discharged from 
an aperture in each second of time, making no allowance 
for friction, is found by multiplying the area of the open- 
ing by the velocity. But practically the "contracted 
vein," formed by the friction of the flowing hquid with the 
sides of the aperture, diminishes the motion of the water, 
and the quantity discharged in a given time. It is a fric- 
tion upon the banks of a stream which renders the current 
less rapid near the shore than in the middle of the channel. 
It is found in practice that a horizontal tube, as a water 
supply branch tube, two inches in diameter will discharge 
about five times— instead of four times— as much water as 
a tube of one inch diameter. It is supposed, though it 
cannot be proved, that friction influences the flow of equal 
distances from the surface of contact in each tube, and 

11 



PHYSICS- 

that the consequent retardation is greater in the small 
tube than in the larger one. This principle should always 
be taken into account when laying water supply pipes and 
sewerage. 

From a vessel filled with a liquid the quantity dis- 
charged from an orifice in a certain time, will be uniformly 
retarded unless the vessel be constantly replenished at the 
same rate. 

The velocity of a liquid passing through channels of 
unequal section, will increase as the section decreases, and 
vice versa. This appears in the flow of a river. When- 
ever the channel is narrowed the current becomes more 
rapid. 

The velocity of a river depends upon the dechvity of 
its channel. In a smooth, straight channel, three inches 
decline in a mile gives a velocity of about three miles per 
hour. Dividing the Mississippi river into sections from 
the Gulf of Mexico, the average declivity is 1.8 inches for 
the first one hundred miles from the Gulf, 2 inches for the 
second hundred, 2.3 inches for the third hundred, 2.57 
inches for the fourth hundred miles, and thereafter vary- 
ing with the changing topography of the basin. 

Waves.— If one portion of a liquid is disturbed or set 
in motion, this movement is communicated to all adjacent 
particles of this liquid. When the wind presses with un- 
equal force upon any portion of the surface of the sea, '* 
lake, or any other body of water, the portion so acted upon 
is depressed. The indifferent equilibrium of the particles 
of water causes an elevation of the adjacent particles and 
a "wave" is thus propagated. 

In deep waters, waves have but little more than a ver- 
tical motion; only the form moves, but not the substance. 
This explains why in deep oceans, out of the course of 

12 



PHYSICS, 

ocean currents, "derelicts" (vessels abandoned at sea) 
may be found floating often for weeks, near the point 
where first abandoned. 

The form of a body moving through a liquid deter- 
mines the amount of resistance to its velocity, the resist- 
ance being generallj^ proportioned to the velocity, if the 
direction of motion is perpendicular to the plane of the 
liquid. The model form for bodies moving through a 
hquid with the least resistance and greatest proportionate 
velocity, is that of the fish, especially of those whose 
length of body greatly exceeds its width and depth, as the 
pike. 

The application of water as a motive power of ma- 
chinery has been in use for so many centuries t||at it is, at 
least in some of its forms, known to all. The simplest 
mode used from time immemorial is the "Wheel." 

The Overshot, the Breast, the Undershot, and the Tur- 
bine, are the four classes of wheels most generally used. 
The choice of which form to employ depends chiefly upon 
the height of fall, the volume and the rapidity of the cur- 
rent. 

The Oversliot wheel utilizes about three -fourths of 
the weight— the moving force— of the water. It is most 
eflS-Cient where the fall in the stream is suflScient to permit 
its use. On its circumference it has a series of buckets 
which receive the water at the top of the wheel and dis- 
charge it at the bottom. The buckets on one side of the 
wheel are filled with water while those on the opposite 
side are empty. The motion of the wheel is to some ex- 
tent increased by the force with which the stream strikes 
the buckets. 

The Breast wheel is an intermediate between the 
Overshot and the Undershot. The water is delivered to 

13 



PHYSICS. 

its buckets or "floats" just belg^w the level of the axis of 
the wheel. Both the weight of the water and its momen- 
tum constitute the impulsive force. About 60 per cent of 
the moving power of the water is available. 

In the Undershot wheel dependence is placed chiefly 
upon the velocity of the current without regard to the 
weight. About 25 per cent of the motive power of the 
water is available. It is used only where there is no di- 
rect fall, but a rapid current. On its circumference floats 
are placed so arranged as to present an acute angle to the 
current. If the wheels are constructed to turn either way 
the floats are placed at right angles to the circumference. 
The Turbine wheel, a modern invention, is the most 
powerful and economical form. Its action is obtained from 
the pressure of a column of water. This column may be of 
any height. The Turbine wheel utihzes a much larger per 
cent of the moving power of water than any other. In the 
cotton factories of Lowell, Mass., it is claimed that 95 per 
cent of the moving power is available. The wheel is en- 
tirely submerged at the base of the column of water sup- 
plying it. The water rushes through a gate box with 
great force and is directed by means of curved partitions 
against the partitions of the wheel; after having expended 
its energy it escapes through a passage from the lower 
part of the casing in which the wheel is contained. 

A curiosity in hydraulic machines is the "water-screw" 
of Archimedes. This consists of a tube wrapped around a 
cyhnder, at such an angle, exceeding 45 degrees as may be 
desired, and turned by any motor available. The whole 
arrangement is also inchned to the surface of the water to 
be removed at less than 45 degrees above the horizontal. 
The water "rises by falUng," a paradox in assertion, but a 
fact in practice. It is rarely used. 

14 



PHYSICS. 

The common "suction" pump, and the chain pump are 
so generally used that they are familiar to all. The prin- 
ciple of the "suction" pump will be exhibited under Pneu- 
matics, where it properly belongs. The chain pump is 
used not only for elevating liquids, but in mills for eleva- 
ting flour, grain, etc. Its advantages are increased if it 
can be somewhat inclined, instead of being placed perpen- 
dicularly. This is done when it is used in unloading grain 
from the holds of vessels. 

The Hydrauhc Ram, now rarely- used, is a machine 
used to raise water by the combined action of air-pressure 
and of the momentum of a current of water, which is al- 
ternated in its course and thus caused to act at regularly 
intermitted moments. 

PNEUMATICS. 

The branch of physical science which discusses the 
pressure and other properties of air, or of aeriform or 
gaseous bodies is called Pneumatics. The title is derived 
from "pneuma," signifying wind or air. The names at- 
mosphere and air are synonyms, and it is neither gram- 
matically nor physically correct to use either adjectively 
in connection with the other, as is done by some writers in 
the use of such expressions as atmospheric air, and aeri- 
form atmosphere. 

There are two classes of aeriform bodies; viz.: perma- 
nent gases, unchanged by ordinary pressure and tempera- 
ture, and temporary gases ( so called ) which may be con- 
densed by pressure or shght diminution of temperature 
into liquids. Steam is a familiar illustration of this form. 

The Atmosphere, ( atmos— vapor, sphaira— sphere, ) or 
Air (a6r— air) is a thin, transparent substance enveloping 
the earth having pecuhar properties necessary to the sup- 
port of life. Air is not invisible when seen through a great 

16 



PHYSICS. 

distance. The "sky" appears blue because the "sky" is 
simply the reflected color of a vast volume of air, as the 
color of any object is due to the light reflected from its 
surface. 

Air has the quahties of impenetrability, inertia, weight, 
and other general properties of matter. An inverted gob- 
let cannot be pressed down so deeply in a mass of water 
but that a stratum of air will be interposed between the 
water and the bottom of the goblet. The resistance offered 
to the motion of a body passing through the air, as a fall- 
ing leaf, or a fan, is due to the inertia of the air. That air 
has weight to the extent of about 30 grains to 100 cubic 
inches may be shown by weighing a suitable flask, then 
exhausting the air and again weighing the flask. 

The elasticity and compressibility of air are qualities 
which possess great practical value. 

The density of the air varies with the altitude, decreas- 
ing with an increase of altitude, and vice versa. This de- 
crease is due to the decrease in the action of the force of 
gravity, and the diminished pressure; hence the density, 
under ordinary circumstances, is greater near the surface 
of the earth than any elevation above it. 

Mariotte's Law. — "The volume of space which air 
occupies is inversely as the pressure upon it." The elas- 
ticity of air is increased in direct proportion to the increase 
of density. The action of explosives is based upon this 
principle. The more closely giant powder, for instance, is 
packed and confined, as in blasting rock, the greater will 
be the elastic forces of the gases generated by its combus- 
tion, and the greater the expansive force. 

The Barometer is an instrument designed to measure 
the pressure, or weight, of the atmosphere. Its action 
depends upon the laws already mentioned governing the 

16 



PHYSICS. 

elasticity, density and pressure of the air under different 
circumstances. The weight already given, of 30 grains to 
100 cubic inches, or its equivalent of 15 pounds to 1 square 
inch of surface, and the fact that the pressure varies with 
the density, led to its invention. The marking of *'clear," 
"foul," etc., as weather indications are of very Uttle value, 
while the general fact that the fall of the mercury in the 
tube of the barometer shows the approach of a storm 
period, as the lowering of mercury in a thermometer shows 
a present lower temperature, renders it a useful instrument 
to those whose convenience or safety may depend upon 
this forecast. It is also a ready means of measuring the al- 
titude of accessible points, though not quite so correctly as 
can be done by trigonometric calculations, in which no ne- 
cessity exists of making allowances for varied temperature, 
etc. In measuring altitudes, a fall of 1 inch indicates, ap- 
proximately, an increase of 900 feet in elevation. 

The height of the atmosphere as estimated by different 
physicists varies from fifty to two hundred miles, the ele- 
vation, in either case, at which the pressure would become 
nil. The altitude of luminous meteors is one of the means 
used in making this estimate, on the theory that the in- 
tense heat generated by the friction of the meteor with 
the atmosphere is the cause of its ignition. 

Gaseous bodies resemble liquids in the transmission of 
pressure equally in all directions ; the atmosphere, there- 
fore, presses downward, upward, laterally, and obliquely 
with the same force. The pressure of 15 pounds upon 
each square inch of surface of the human body is counter- 
balanced, at sea-level, by the internal pressure of the gases 
and liquids with which the body is supphed. Extreme ele- 
vations of the person, as in balloon ascensions, or in climb- 
ing high mountains causes great suffering" because of the 

17 



PHYSICS. 

expansive force of these internal agents is not sufficiently 
counteracted by the diminished pressure of the external 
air for comfort. 

A * 'sultry day" in summer, and the same sensation in 
a steam-heated room, where the vapor escapes from the 
valves of the radiator, are caused by the extreme heat 
rarifying the atmosphere at the same time its vapor is 
condensed. 




18 



PHYSICS. 
OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

( SECOND PAPER. ) 

1. Define Energy. Work. Potential Energy. Kin- 
etic Energy. 

2. Give the units of measure in both the ''practical" 
and "metric" systems. 

3. What is a Dynamometer? Illustrate. 

4. What is a machine? Give general law governing 
machines. 

5. Describe one simple machine? Into how many 
classes are levers divided? 

6. Define Hydrostatics. Hydraulics. 

7. How does the pressure of liquids differ from that of 
solids? Describe the hydrostatic press*. 

8. To what is the lateral pressure of liquid propor- 
tional? What effect does the shape of a vessel have upon 
the downward pressure? ''^ 

9. What is the shape of the surface of a large expanse 
of water? Why? 

10. Upon what does flotation depend? Give the laws 
of flotation. 

11. Upon what does the velocity of a river depend? 
How is a wave propagated? 

12. Describe the Overshot, the Breast, the Undershot 
and the Turbine Wheels. 

13. How much of the moving force of the water does 
the Overshot wheel utilize? What constitutes the impul- 
sive force of the breast wheel? 

14. Describe the "water screw." How may the ad- 
vantages of the chain pump be increased? 

15. Define Pneumatics. Name the two classes of 
aeriforrh. bodies. 

16. Why does the "sky" appear blue? What proper- 
ties of matter does the air possess? 

17. Upon what does the density of the air depend? 
Give Mariotte's Law. 

18. Describe the Barometer. Upon what does, its ac- 
tion depend? 

19. What is the height of the atmosphere? Give one 
of the methods used in making this estimate. 

20. In what respects do gaseous bodies resemble 
liquids? 

19 . 



M 

"^^ 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

(SECOND PAPER.) 

"Learn the past and you know the future." 

THE HEBREWS. - 

While the Chaldeans, as a nation, were given over to 
idolatry, a small band of nomadic shepherds still continued 
monotheistic in their behef , still recognized but one Supreme 
God as the only God. After the death of Nimrod, "the 
mighty hunter" and king, they slowly moved up the Eu- 
phrates valley from Ur, their native province and home, 
driving before them their flocks and herds, halting for days 
and months by the sweet waters and mid the rich j^stures 
of the plains. 

Later, under Abraham, journeying through the 
Syrian desert, they tarried for a time at Damascus and 
thence turned their faces southward, in search of the 
"Promised Land," and at last stopped at Shechem in 
Canaan, where the name Hebrews was given them by 
the Canaanites. This land of Canaan was subsequently 
called Judea and now Palestine. The Canaanites being 
residents of the plains, Abraham, for better security against 
their warlike attacks, settled in the mountain regions and 
remained here until driven by famine to Egypt. 

Banished from Egypt on account of the deceit practiced 
by them upon the Pharaoh, they returned to Canaan. But 
the journey of the race to Egypt was again forecast 
(Genesis 15: 13), also the captivity which was suffered by 
them, beginning with the Pharaoh whom Joseph served 
as viceroy and ending when Moses led the "Children of 
Israel" from Goshen to the wilderness of Sinai, an event 
which is styled in Biblical records the Exodus (going out). 



g:^n]E^raiv history. 

"Now, the sojourning of the Children of Israel, who dwelt 
in Egypt, was four hundred and thirty years" (Exodus 
12:40). 

When (about 1300 B. 0.) the Children of Israel under 
the leadership of Moses fled from their Egyptian homes, it 
was not as a small band of seventy persons who had ac- 
companied Jacob into Egypt in search of food, but a host 
of over three millions, enriched by the spoil taken upon the 
eve of their flight from their Egyptian neighbors, and driv- 
ing before them the great herds from the rich lands of 
Egypt. Four hundred years of servile subjection to their 
Egyptian task masters had rendered the Hebrews incapable 
of exercising any functions of a government. Their mo- 
notheistic behef had become, to some extent, tinged with 
the superstitions of Egypt. Accordingly forty years' 
wandering among the sinaitic wildernesses under the vice- 
gerency of Moses, — the representative of the Power which 
was leading them, was the means adopted to purge them 
of their faults and to prepare them to become the Hebrew 
nation, instead of a confederacy of twelve wandering 
tribes. 

They were ruled for five hundred -years by Judges, 
whose oppressions finally became too great to be borne, and 
the form of government was in 1095 B. C. changed into a 
monarchy by the choice of the people themselves. Saul 
was anointed king, and upon the death of Saul, David be- 
came king. 

The encouragement which David gave to navigation — 
upon the Red Sea — and trade especially with the Tyrians 
and Egyptians, did much to increase the wealth of the He- 
brews by extending the markets for their grains, fruits, 
wines, and other products, also led to the inpouring of vast 
stores of precious metals, jewels and fabrics of the skilled 

2 



g]r?n:e^raiv history, 

Tyrians, Egyptians and other peoples, thus enabling King 
David to accumulate the stores of material with which was 
built the great Temple by his son and successor, Solomon, 

The reign of Solomon continued from 1015 to 975 B. C, 
forty years. The glory of the Hebrew nation reached its 
summit during his reign. The great increase in wealth and 
luxury caused corruption not alone among the nobles of 
secular rank, but among the priesthood as well; the re- 
ligious belief and customs of the people became impure 
and colored with cruel ceremonies, learned from their idol- 
atrous neighbors, heavy taxes were imposed upon the 
people to meet the enormous expenses of the ruling classes; 
discontent and dissensions were widespread. The tyranny 
of Rehoboam, the son and successor of Solomon, brought 
about a revolt of ten tribes jwho set up an .independent 
kingdom, the Kingdom of Israel with Jeroboam as 
king. Two tribes remained faithful to King Kehoboam and 
formed the Kingdom of Judah. 

The territory of Jeroboam extended partly beyond the 
Jordan, and from the borders of Damascus — a province of 
Syria — to within a few miles of Jerusalem, holding a popu- 
lation twice that of Judah. The kingdom of Israel lasted 
two hundred and fifty years. It was destroyed during an 
invasion by the Assyrians, Hoshea, their last king sur- 
rendering Samaria — city and province— the inhabitants, the 
'*ten lost tribes" being carried away captives, and dis- 
persed, it is thought, among the allies of the Assyrians. 
Babylonians were settled in the captured sections in col- 
onies, their union with the remnant who escaped death and 
captivity giving origin to the Samaritan race inhabiting 
this region during the time of Jesus, the Christ. 

The kingdom of Judah lasted one hundred and thirty- 
five years longer than Israel. Zedekiah was the last 



g^n:^ral history. 

king of Judah. His capital city, Jerusalem, was taken by 
Nebuchadnezer, king of Babylon, the temple and city de- 
stroyed, the king Hezekiah and his people carried captives 
to Babylon, 586 B. C. For more than fifty years the city 
existed only as a loved memory with the exiles, until 
Cyrus, the Persian monarch, who then reigned over Baby- 
lon, ordered them to return and rebuild the temple and 
city walls, every Jew being ordered to assist in the work. 
The Jews remained under the dominion of the Persians 
until the conquest by Alexander. After his death, 324 B. 
C, it became subject to Ptolemy, one of his successors. 
The sovereignty of Palestine became the subject of war 
between Syria and Egypt. Finally Antiochus, the Great, 
defeating the Egyptians, Syria became the suzerain. The 
Jews revolted under the leadership of Judas Maccabeus, 
who defeated the Syrian army and re-entered Jerusalem 
166 B. C, establishing the Maccabean dynasty. They and 
their successors ruled as high priests, were succeeded by 
Aristobulus, who in turn was overcome by Pompey, the 
Roman general. From 37 B. C. to A. D. 44 Judea, as a 
province of Roman Syria, was ruled by Herod and his lieu- 
tenants. It was during this period that the long-looked for 
but rejected Messiah of the Jews, the accepted Savior of 
the Gentiles was born in the line of David. 

Once again the Jews, overwhelmed by the tyranny of 
their Roman masters, revolted. Seizing Jerusalem they 
attempted to withstand the Roman legions, but the city 
having been taken, its capture and complete destruction 
by Titus, A. D. 70, and the final dispersion of the Jewish 
race occured. 

The civilization of the Hebrews cannot be said to mark 
any great impulse in the advancement of art or science. 
Mankind has inherited but little in this respect, from their 



G:E^N:gRAI< HISTORY. 

existence. It is only when we consider the literature and 
religion of the Hebrews, that we can see how great is the 
debt owing to this people by the nations of the whole civi- 
hzed world. Oppressed, banished, tortured, put to death, 
the despised Jew still proves his religion and his books es- 
sential elements in modern progress. 

THE MEDES AND PERSIANS. 

The Medes and Persians were Aryans, who, coming 
from the common home of the Aryan peoples, crossed the 
Hindu Kush Mountains and settled the region west of 
Mesopotamia. The Medes held the country to the north 
and had power at first over the Persians. As usual with a 
young nation, the invasion of neighboring states by them, 
or the repulsion of invaders of their own state, constituted 
the bulk of their activities until the period of Cyaxares 
(625-585), by whom the Median monarchy is considered to 
have been firmly estabhshed. 

Cyaxares helped Nabopolassar to destroy the power of 
Assyria. He endeavored to extend his territory into Asia 
Minor, but made a truce and an alliance by marriage with the 
king of Lydia, a country most fertile and rich in gold mines. 

With Astyages, the son of Cyaxares, the ascendancy 
of the Medes came to an end, for he was conquered by the 
prince of Persia, Cyrus the great. 

Cyrus (558 B. C.-529B. C.) by this conquest and the 
subjugation of Croesus, king of Lydia, and the king of 
Babylonia made himself the founder of the great Persian 
Empire. "In military genius Cyrus excelled all the earher 

kings of Asia. He overcame his enemies by wise plans and 
rapid movements. A gracious conqueror, he treated his 
new subjects kindly. He spared Babylon and permitted 
the Jews to rebuild their holy city. In him Asiatic history 
takes a new and higher character." Cyrus was snccceded 
by his son Cambyses who made conquests in Egypt. 



GBNBRAi; HISTORY. 

Darius I, after overcoming the False Smerdis, a pre- 
tender, came to the throne. He did much for his country 
both through conquests and by his works of peace. He 
conquered a district in India, the Punjab, which brought 
him rich tribute. He extended the boundaries of the 
Persians into Europe, for he conquered Thrace and forced 
Macedonia to pay tribute. He marched even into the 
region now Russia, but his fighting with the Scythian 
hordes there was unsatisfactory. His most important war 
was with the Greeks. The cause was as follows. There 
were along the coast of Asia Minor, colonies of the Ionian 
Greeks, which had fallen under the power of Persia. 
While Darius was king they revolted and aid was sent them 
by their kinsmen in Greece, chiefly by the cities Athens and 
Eretria. Darius was able to put down the revolt of the 
Ionian cities and then determined to punish Greece for the 
help she had sent. He fitted out a great expedition but 
the fleet was wrecked off Mount Athos and the land forces 
were defeated in Thrace^ A second expedition was defeat- 
ed by the Greeks at the battle of Marathon, 490 B. 0. The 
death of Darius occured before he could carry out his plans 
of sending a third expedition against Greece. 

Darius centralized the government of the empire by 
dividing all his possessions into about twenty provinces or 
satrapies, with a governor or satrap, appointed by him- 
self, at the head of each. The satrap collected taxes from 
the people for the government and also for his own sup- 
port, which custom gave opportunity for much oppression. 
Darius succeeded in centralizing the management of the dif- 
ferent parts of his empire, also by the building of post-roads. 
He established a coinage, encoi>^ged trade, built magnif- 
icent palaces at his capitals, Susa and Persepolis, and caused 
a record of his deeds to be inscribed on a lofty chff , the 



GBN]gRAL HISTORY. 

Rock of Behistun. It is through the deciphering of this 
inscription that it has become possible to read the cunei- 
form writings of the Mesopotamian peoples and the Pers- 
ians. The Rock of Behistun is to the cuneiform writings 
what the Rosetta Stone was to the Egyptian hieroglyphs. 

Xerxes I, a luxury-loving prince, after much urging 
took up the war against Greece begun by his father. He 
sent about three milMon men into Greece over the Helles- 
pontine bridges, built by Phoenician architects. His fleet 
numbered about twelve hundred ships. The story of this 
invasion belongs more closely with Greek history. The 
fleet of Xerxes was defeated at the battle of Salamis 480 B. 
C, and Xerxes returned home. The power of Persia de- 
decMned after the reign of Xerxes I, until in 331 B. C, 
Darius III, was conquered by Alexander the great. 

The great buildings of the Persians were their palaces. 
These were built on high foundations of stone for protec- 
tion, to secure the cool breezes, and to insure a more com- 
manding appearance. At Persepohs there are the remains 
of a platform fifteen hundred feet long, a thousand feet 
wide, and forty feet high. The stairways leading to the 
summit are well preserved and show most excellent work- 
manship. The palaces of the early warKke kings were 
small and unassuming, while those of the later kings show 
in their magnificence the change that had taken place in 
the Uves of the kings from strenuousness to luxury. The 
sculptures show the same change; the walls of the early 
palaces are adorned with representations of hon hunts; in 
the later palaces were seen represented festivities of the 
court. 

The Persians had no great temple buildings— an altar 
and pedestal served as a place of worship. The religion of 
the Persian was duahstic. They beUeved in one great good 



G]gN:^RAIy HISTORY. 

god, Ahura-mazda or Ormazd, and in an evil spirit, Ahri- 
man, who created reptiles, weeds, and everything that was 
base. It was the duty of the pious to assist Ormazd by 
destroying the creations of the evil spirit. The great re- 
Hgious teacher of the Persians was Zoroaster, and their 
book the Zenda-vesta. Zoroastrianism was affected by 
the religion of the Magian priests, or fire -worshippers, who 
held as sacred the elements of fire, earth, water. The 
Persian rehgion was the purest, excluding that of the He- 
brews, of any of the ancient peoples. 

"In science, and in all the arts, with the exception of 
architecture, sculpture, and the cuttting of gems, the 
Persians accomplished nothing great. They were not 
workers, but warriors and rulers." 

GREECE (HELLAS). 

The legendary history— the period of traditions— of 
Hellas extends from about 1856, B. C. to 776 B. C. The 
Iliad and Odyssey, of the eighth or ninth century B. C, 
the most ancient Greek works extant, the writings of 
Herodotus, of Thucydides, and of Diodorus Siculus, 
are the sources of our knowledge of this period. The 
authenticity of Homer, although formerly considered 
doubtful, has been to some extent corroborated by the ex- 
cavations made by Dr. Schliemann in the Troad. 

In the historical period, we find no Greek traditions of 
the migrations of their remote ancestors from Asia. They 
believed their forefathers were aborigines, sprung from 
the sacred mother Gee a. 

The most ancient people were the Pelasgians, who 
were still an important factor after the Hellenic tribes 
appeared. The origin of the Hellenes is unknown except 
that they were Aryans as well as the Pelasgi. After their 
appearance the country was called Hellas. The names 



G:gN}gRAIy HISTORY. 

Greece and Greek (Graecia and Graecus) are of Roman 
origin. The era of the predominancy of the Pelasgians 
was called the Golden Age of Greece. Universal peace 
prevailed, agriculture was encouraged, architecture flour- 
ished and plain, massive buildings were erected. The 
name Cyclopean (from the name of the giant Cyclops) has 
been given to the masonry of the great walls and tombs 
from the belief of the later people that only giants could 
have moved those masses of stone which are still great in 
their ruins. 

About 1856 B. C. the great commercial nation of the 
Mediterranean— the Phoenicians— are said to have founded 
Argos, the oldest city in Greece. About thre^ hundred 
years later, Cecrops, an Egyptian, is supposed to have 
established his followers at Athens, so named in honor of 
the Greek goddess Athene (Pallas) and also at Corinth in 
1520 B. C. In the same year Lelex, an Egyptian, to the 
followers of whom the name Leleges was given, founded 
Sparta. In 1485 B. C, Danaus, an Egyptian, whose de- 
scendants were styled Danai in the legends, arrived at 
Argos, with his fifty daughters. The legends state that by 
him the people were first taught to dig wells. In 1350 B. 
C., Pelops migrated from Phrygia with followers into 
that section which was called the Peloponnesus, supposedly 
in his honor. These are now considered fabulous person- 
ages, with the exception of one, Cadmvis— who is con- 
sidered an authentic character simply because he is credited 
with having introduced the Phoenician Alphabet. 

This legendary period is called the Heroic Age and to 
it belong the Labors of Heracles (Hercules), the achieve- 
ments of Theseus, the Argonautic Expedition, led by 
Jason, in search of the golden fleece, and the Siege of 
Troy. The narrative of this siege is related in the 

9 



g:e;n:e^raI/ history. 

Homeric poems, and tlie heroes, the Greek; Achilles, 
Agamemnon, Menelaus and Ulysses, and the Trojan; 
Hector, Priam and Aeneas are as well known as the 
warriors of more authentic times. 

In this Heroic Age, the Greeks lived in strongly forti- 
fied towns, richly adorned palaces and temples giving evi- 
dence of their wealth and luxury. Their extent of coast- 
line and fine harbors made maritime intercourse easy and 
brought the civilization of other lands to them and the great 
virtue of hospitality to strangers was inculcated. Warhke 
courage was esteemed the highest virtue, an opinion which 
was one cause of the almost constant wars. Women were 
held in great respect. Slavery existed. Polytheism caused 
the erection of many temples to the gods, and strong re- 
hgious sentiment produced great reverence for the priests. 
There were twelve chief deities who lived on Mount 
Olympus: Zeus, king of the gods and wielder of thun- 
der-bolts; Hera, his wife, the jealous queen; Poseidon, 
the god of the sea; Ares, god of war; Apollo, god of 
hght, healing, music, poetry, prophecy, who had oracles in 
many cities, the chief being at Delphi; Artemis, the 
huntress, twin- sister of Apollo; Aphrodite, goddess of 
beauty and love; Hephaestus, the deformed god of fife, 
the forger of metal and implements of war, and of the 
thunderbolts of Zeus; Hermes, messenger of the gods; 
Demeter, goddess of the harvest; Pallas- Athena, god- 
dess of wisdom; Hestia, the goddess of the hearth. There 
were many minor deities as Hades, god of the lower 
world; Dionysus, god of wine, in whose honor were 
given all the plays in the theaters. Besides these almost 
every manifestation of nature was personified, and sea and 
earth were peopled with half- divine nereids, nymphs, 
naiads and other creatures, many of them ugly monsters. 

10 



g]5^n:^ral history. 

This was the religious belief of all the Greeks with the ex- 
ception of a few philosophers, until Christianity was in- 
troduced. 

The Greeks never became a united nation partially be- 
cause of geographical conditions. Separated as they were 
by seas and mountains, they gathered into independent 
city-states of which Sparta and Athens were the most im- 
portant. 

SPARTA. 

In early times the Acheeans were in the ascendancy, 
their control extended over the three Kingdoms of Argos, 
Mycenae, and Sparta, but the peculiar discipline of the 
Dorians, forming them into a great, war-like j^ople, sub- 
sequently caused them to surpass the Achseans in influence 
among the people of the Peloponnesus, and the seat of 
their greatest power was Sparta. The government of 
Sparta was aristocratic or ohgarchical. liycurgpiis, their 
great law-giver, by his laws fostered the natural trend 
toward war-Mke pursuits. According to his regulations all 
infants were examined by an appointed committee and the 
weak were exposed in desolate places to die. At the age 
of seven every Spartan boy was put in charge of a boy- 
trainer, and taught to endure great pain and hardship, and 
no education other than physical or military was given. 
All boys and men were obliged to eat at a public table, 
where no luxury was permitted. Iron money was used in 
order to discourage foreign trade and the introduction of 
luxuries. These laws made the Spartains a nation of war- 
riors, but there were no great artists, writers or statesmen 
among them. Family life was destroyed and the people 
made harsh and cruel. These laws were intended only for 
Spartans* the Dorian conquerors, who spent their time in 

n 






Gl^NICRAi; HISTORY. 

military and govermental affairs while the Perioeci (the 
conquered Achaeans), and the Helots or slaves cultivated 
the fields. By the middle of the sixth century B. C, the 
Spartans had the mastery over most of the states in the 
Peloponnesus. The hardest struggle came in the Messenian 
Wars, in one of which the Spartans were incited to victory 
by the war-like songs of the lame school-master, Tyrtaeus. 

ATHENS. 

The earliest government was a Kingdom, -and one of 
the most famous kings was Theseus, who, according to 
legend, freed Athens from the annual tribute of youths 
and maidens to the Minotaur of Crete. By the seventh 
century B. 0., the government had gradually changed to 
an ohgarchy with nine arclions chosen from the nobles as 
the governing power. The Council of the Areopagus, 
an aristocratic body, made up of ex-Archons, was the final 
court of appeals. This body existed for many years and 
was probably the council before whom Paul, the Apostle, 
appeared. The dissatisfaction of the lower classes led the 
government to appoint Draco to frame new laws. He also 
instituted a second council which was a more democratic 
body than the Areopagus and was called the Council of 
Four-hundred-and-one. But his laws were harsh and un- 
satisfactory, and a generation later Solon was appointed to 
frame a new constitution. 'He reorganized the council of 
Draco into the famous Council of Four-hundred. All 
classes except the lowest (the Thetes), were allowed to 
hold ofiice, and even that class were allowed a vote in the 
Ecclesla or Popular Assembly. He brought about an 
important reform by forever abolishing the practice of 
selling as slaves the person and family of a debtor. Solon 
was the real founder of Democracy in Athens, and his laws 

12 



g:^n:erai, history. 

were so just that their influence has been felt in the con- 
stitution of many nations. 

The laws of Solon were set aside for a time when the 
goverment was seized by the tyrant Pisistratus. In 
many of the Greek states such tyrranies arose and existed 
for a generation or more, and many times were beneficial. 
This was true in the case of Pisistratus (560 B. 0.-527 B. C). 
He was a patron of learning, opened the first public hbrary 
in Athens, and had the Homeric poems collected and edited. 
He also laid out the great Lyceum, a public park, where 
later the great teacher, Aristotle, discoursed on philosophy 
to his pupils. Pisistratus was succeeded by his two sons, 
Hipparchus and Hippias, but the former was soon assassin- 
ated and after a few years the latter was expelled and the 
democracy restored. 

At this time Cleistlienes, a noble, whose interest, 
nevertheless, was in the welfare of the people, added new 
laws, which made the government more democratic than 
before. All the free inhabitants of Attica, were divided 
into ten trilbes, the tribes into one hundred townships or 
denies, and all were admitted to the Ecclesia. The council 
of Four-hundred was changed to a council of Five -hundred, 
fifty from each tribe, and citizen- juries were estabhshed. 
In order to prevent an unpopular faction from seizing the 
power, he instituted ostracism, by means of which any 
one could be banished for ten years by the vote against him 
of six thousand citizens. The name of the citizen to be 
banished was written on a shell, in Greek ostrakon, and 
hence arose the word ostracism. 

GRAECO-PERSIAN WAR. 

The cause of the struggle between the Greeks and 
Persians has been given in the history of Persia. It was 
in 500 B. C, that the cities of Asia Minor revolted and 

13 



G:^N]gRAIV HISTORY. 

490 B. C. that tlie second expedition of Darius was de- 
feated at Marathon by a small army of Athenians and 
Plataeans under the Athenian general Miltiades; he was 
one of ten generals who were appointed to rule a day at a 
time. On this occasion, following the generous example of 
Aristides, all surrendered their turn to Miltiades. The bat- 
tle of Marathon was fought at the town of that name in 
Attica, a day's journey from Athens. The Persians em- 
barking from their ships were scarcely drawn up on the 
plain when from the hills, which rose amphitheater-like, 
the Greeks descended upon them. Utterly routed, the 
Persians fled to their ships. They sailed to Athens, but 
shrinking from meeting again the warriors of Marathon, 
who had in the meantime marched overland to meet them, 
they returned to the coasfc of Asia. 

The efforts of Xerxes to conquer Greece were on a 
more magnificent scale. He had pontoon bridges laid 
across the Hellespont and store-houses for grain built 
along the Mne of march in Asia and Thrace. Herodotus 
estimated his fighting force at over two millions, but prob- 
ably there were about nine hundred thousand soldiers. 

The preparations of the Greeks were hindered by the 
jealousy between the states, but at a congress held at 
Corinth (481 B. C), plans were made to meet Xerxes at the 
pass of Thermopylae. Here (480 B. C.) Leonidas, king 
of Sparta, with three hundred Spartans and a few thousand 
allies, while waiting for re -enforcements, until the sacred 
games should be fininshed, held back the vast Persian 
army. Finally a Greek traitor revealed to the enemy a 
secret pass. Leonidas dismissed the allies, only the seven 
hundred Thespians choosing to remain, and they with the 
little band of three hundred Spartans were completely 
annihilated, To Spartans surrender was far worse than 

14 



G}gN:^RAL HISTORY. 

death. The Persians inarched on to Attica, ravaging the 
plains as they went, and burned Athens. No resistance 
was made, as the women and children had been taken to 
places of safety and the able-bodied men were all on the 
ships. 

The Persian and Greek fleets met at Salamis, 480 B. C, 
and the Persians were so completely routed that Xerxes, 
with most of his land f orces, made a retreat into Asia. 
Credit for the strength of the Athenian fleet and for the 
naval victory at Salamis was due to the statesmanhip of 
Themistocles, who, ever since the invasion of Darius, 
had bent all his efforts to strengthening the power of 
Athens on the sea. In carrying out this poli^, he had 
come in conflict with Aristides, called the "Just". In 
consequence Aristides had been ostracised, but was recalled 
in time to take part in this battle. 

The year following (479 B. C.) the forces which Xerxes 
had left in Greece under Mardonius, were defeated at 
Plataea by the Spartan Pausanias, and the Persian fleet 
was again defeated at Mycale, off the coast of Asia Minor. 
These battles closed the war. 

Far greater interests were staked on the issue of this 
war than those for which the combatants struggled. The 
supremacy of the West over the East was achieved, and 
Hellenic culture and institutions were passed on to the 
world rather than the civihzation of Persia. 

The half- century following the Persian war was the 
brightest in the history of Greece. The states soon re- 
covered from their losses. Through the influence of 
Themistocles, Athens was rebuilt and protected by a strong 
wall. Ships were added yearly to her fleet, and her har- 
bors were enlarged and strengthened. 

15 



G]gN:^RAI, HISTORY. 

A league of the states of Greece, Asia Minor and the 
Aegean Sea, called the Confederacy of Delos, was 
formed for protection against further encroachments of 
Persia. Aristides was the first president, and Athens 
gained great power through her supremacy in this league, 
and by her fraudulent use of the funds, especially after the 
treasury was moved from Delos to Athens. She built up 
what was virtually an empire with the allied states under 
her sway. 

The enthuisiasm roused by the great victories which 
the Greeks had won brought out the greatest genius that 
was in the Greek race. Among the writers who flourished 
during this century (Fifth) were the three great tragedians, 
Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides; the writer of 
comedy, Aristophanes; Pindar, the greatest lyric poet 
of the Greeks, who sang of the victors in the national 
games, Herodotus and Thucydides, the historians. 

It was at this time that the most beautiful buildings of 
the Greeks were erected. Among temples, the Parthenon 
on the Acropolis at Athens, devoted to the goddess Athena, 
is the most perfect example of the Doric style of archi- 
tecture, and the ]S"ike temple, or temple to Victory, at 
the entrance to the Acropolis, of the Ionic. The greatest 
sculptor of the world, Phidias, had charge of the decora- 
tion of many of these buildings. He made for the Par- 
thenon a colossal statue of Athena, forty feet high, of gold 
and ivory; one of Zeus for the temple of Zeus at Olympia, 
a statue considered so beautiful by the Greeks that they 
considered it a misfortune to die without having looked up- 
on it. The exquisite frieze of the Parthenon was his work 
and pediments of that temple, portions of which can be 
seen today in the British Museum, were at least designed 
by him. 



16 



G:igN:^RAi:, history. 

The most brilliant period of Athenian history ia **The 
Age of Pericles." From 469 B. C. to 431 B. C, the in- 
fluence of Pericles over Athens and all her undertakings, 
was very great. He was one of her greatest statesmen. 
In addition to the hterary and artistic activity of this period 
advances were made toward a more perfect democracy, 
and every citizen was quahfied to hold ofl3.ce. The navy 
was strengthened and Athens made more impregnable by 
the fortifying of her harbors, and the building of the Long 
Walls, which connected Athens with the seaport towns 
Piraeus and Phalerum. Citizens were paid for attending 
the Ecclesia, acting on juries and serving in the army, and 
salaries were attached to all public oflSces. These measures 
enabled the poor as well as the rich fco take part in state 
affairs, but they and the more pernicious custom of giving 
free theatre and dinner tickets to the poor engendered 
idleness and a lack of frugality. 

The prosperity of Athens was diminished also by the 
discontent of the states in the Delian Confederacy who 
chafed under the restrictions laid on them by Athens. 

PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 

In 431 B. C, came an end to the prosperity of Greece, 
for Sparta and Athens became involved in the Pelopon- 
nesian War. The real cause was jealousy existing between 
the two states; the immediate cause, the violation by Athens 
of the Thirty Years' Truce, which had been formed 
in 445 B. C. By the terms of the truce neither state was to 

interfere with the allies of the other. But Athens became 
involved in war with Corinth, an aUy of Sparta, in two 
ways; first, by giving aid to Corcyra, a colony of Corinth 
which was having trouble with the mother state; and, 
secondly, by attempting to chastise Potidaea, a colony of 
Corinth, for trying to withdraw from the Delian Con- 
federacy. 

17 



g:e^nkrai< history. 

In 431 B. 0. war was declared. The two sides seemed 
about evenly matched. Sparta had the best organized land 
forces, for most of the states of the Peloponnesian and all 
of the states of the Boeotian League, headed by Thebes, 
were on her side. Athens had the best navy in Greece, and 
the states of the Confederacy of Delos were her allies, and 
Plataea, which refused to join the other Boeotian states. 

Great cruelty was practiced by both parties. Plataea, 
an ally of Athens, was entirely destroyed by the Spartans 
in a spirit of revenge. Athens showed herself equally harsh 
in her punishment, for revolt, of the island city Mitylene. 
Athens gained some successes in the Peloponnesus, but 
was defeated at Delium in Boeotia, 424 B. C, and suffered 
from revolts in the north. Finally the Peace of Nicias 
was made in 421 B. C, to last fifty years; but in 415 B. 0. 
the Athenians sent out the Sicilian Expedition, which 
more than anything else brought about the ruin of Athens* 

This enterprise was planned by Alcibiades, an un- 
principled, but most attractive and beloved leader of the 
Athenians. In Sicily and Southern Italy (Magna 
Graecia), were some of the most important colonies of 
the Greeks, Dorian and Ionian settlements. It was the 
plan of Alcibiades to break the power of the Dorians in 
Sicily and then utterly crush Sparta. But the expedition 
was a complete failure, and Athens after this lost rapidly. 
The Spartans captured Decelea, a town twelve miles from 
Athens and her allies, the states of the Delian League, de- 
serted her; there were dissensions between the ohgarchical 
and democratic parties at Athens, and finally in 405 B. C, 
the Athenians wer6 defeated on the coast of Thrace at 
Aegospotami. The next year, 404 B. C, Athens was 
conquered and an ohgarchy was set up there by Sparta. 

18 



g:^n:e?ral history. 

Sparta held the supremacy in Greece only a short time 
because of her tyranny. In 371 B. 0., in the battle of 
Leiictra, she was defeated by the Thebans under their 
great leader, Expaminondas. Thebes freed the states 
of the Peloponnesus from the tyranny of Sparta, but by 
her successes roused the jealousy of the other states. 
Athens and Sparta formed a league against her, but were 
defeated in the battle of Mantinea, though the death of 
Epaninondas was to the Thebans equal to defeat. 

MACEDONIAN SUPREMACY. 

The Greek states paid dearly for their jealousies and 
strife, for opportunity was given for the incursions of the 
strong Macedonian power in the north. Shortly after the 
battle of Mantinea, the Second Sacred War was begun 
between the Delphic Amphictyony, a council formed be- 
fore the sixth century B. C. for the protection of the shrine 
of Apollo at Delphi, and the Phocians who had robbed the 
sacred lands. The council called on King Philip of 
Macedon for aid. Gladly he entered Greece, and after 
the defeat of the Phocians took their place in the Amphic- 
tyony. 

In 338 B. C. the Athenians and Thebans were roused 
by Deniostlienes, the greatest orator of the Greeks and of 
the world, to resist the encroachments of PhiUp. They 
were defeated at the battle of Chaeronea in the same 
year and Phihp became the ruler of Greece. His victory 
was due to the power of the Macedonian phalanx, an ar- 
rangement of soldiers employed first by Philip. 

Alexander the Great succeeded his father, Philip, 
in 336 B. C, and came into possession of Macedonia, 
Greece, Chalcidice and Thrace. After two years spent in 
suppressing revolts, he crossed the Hellespont with thirty- 
five thousand men, and set about the conquest of the Per- 

19 



G:^N:E;RAiy historv. 

sian Empire, a project which Philip had had in mind at the 
time of his death. Everywhere he was successful. The 
battle of Granicus gave him Asia Minor, and he defeated 
the Persian king, Darius III, at Issiis. Next he subdued 
the Phoenicians, taking Tyre after a siege of seven 
months. The Egyptians, against whom he next marched, 
surrendered without a struggle. In Egypt he founded the 
city Alexandria and had himself proclaimed the son of 
Zeus Ammon, as his vanity was insatiable. Returning to 
Asia he conquered Darius in the battle of Arbela, and the 
Persian Empire was at an end. He captured Babylon, 
Susa and Persepolis, burning the latter in revenge for the 
burning of Athens. He took great treasure from the 
Persian cities. He subdued the inhabitants along the 
shores of the Caspian, conquered the countries north of 
the Hindu Kush Mountains, and part of "India; he redis- 
covered the water-route from the Indus to the Euphrate, 
His plans for the conquest of the western world wei 
frustrated by his death. It lias been said that the geni^ 
of Alexander was greater than his character. His deat , 
was the result of his excesses and his vanity was equalle f 
only by his ambition. He was, however, a most ab 
general and commanded the love and loyalty of h 
soldiers. 

"The great and permanent result of Alexander's con 
quests was the Hellenizing of all Western Asia and Egyp 
— that is the diffusion of Grecian civilization, ideas, Ian ^ 
guage and literature over this vast region; thus preparinj , 
the way for the birth and development of Christianity.' W 
"On the other hand, Greece became influenced by Orienta 
habits; Grecian patriotism and public spirit declined; ar< :■>' 
and literature decayed; and the Greeks became a nation oi'% 
pedants and adventurers." 

20 



GlgNDgRAi; HISTORY. 

No one man was strong enough to hold together the 
vast empire of Alexander the Great, and after some years 
of struggle between his generals, the territory was divided 
into four large kingdoms and several smaller ones. The 
history of the more important of these kingdoms is as fol- 
lows: 

The Kingdom of Lysimaclivis comprised Thrace 
and a part of Asia Minor, but this kingdom was soon ab- 
sorbed by the others. 

The Kingdom of Cassander comprised Greece and 
Macedonia, but the Greeks were never willing subjects 
and carried on the Lamian War against their masters. 
Macedonia was successful, and Demosthenes, the great 
statesman and orator took poison to escape falhng into the 
hands of the Macedonians. 

Macedonia incurred the anger of Rome by giving aid 
to Carthage in the Second Punic War and was overcome in 
the battle of Pydna 168 B. 0. Greece, torn by dissensions 
between two leagues that had been formed, the Achaean 
and AetoMan— fell a prey to Rome in 146 B. O. and Corinth 
was burned to the ground. During the period of Mace- 
donian supremacy, there was httle addition made to Greek 
literature or art. The subjugation of the Greeks seemed 
to have crushed all artistic and literary aspirations. 
Translations were made and the works of earher authors 
were commented upon, but scarcely any original work was 
produced. 

Syria, the Kingdom of Seleucus Nicater em- 
braced nominally the conquests of Alexander in Asia from 
the Mediterranean to the Indus and from the Caspian Sea 
to the Persian Gulf. Seleucus was a great founder of 
cities, some of which, as Antioch on the Mediterranean, be- 
came famous as centers of trade. These cities were settled 

21 



GI^NKRAI/ HISTORY. "* 

by Greek colonists and thus were the means of spreading 
through Asia, Greek culture. Syria was stripped of many 
provinces during the reigns of the successors of Seleucus 
and finally in 63 B. C. was conquered by the Roman general 
Pompey. 

Perhaps the most important of the divisions of Alex- 
ander's Empire was the Kingdom of the Ptolemies 
which comprised Egypt and some provinces in Western 
Asia. Its capital was Alexandria in Egypt. Alexandria 
became one of the greatest trade centers of the world. 
Trade was facihtated by the building of great fleets, the 
building of the Pharos or hght-house in the harbor and the 
reopening of the canal of the Pharoahs which united the 
Red Sea and the Nile. Alexandria became also the center 
of learning of the world. A great hbrary was built and a 
museum or university, with zoological and botanical gar- 
dens and observatories connected with it. Scholars from 
the whole world availed themselves of the advantages for 
study offered here— among them such men as the geometer 
Euchd. Corruption in the ruhng family, and constant dis- 
sensions, due largely to family intermarriages, caused the 
ruin of the kingdom during the reign of Cleopatra. 
Egypt was conquered and made a Roman province in 30 
B. 0. by Octavius Caesar. 

CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE GREEKS TO CIVILIZATION. 

"Among those treasures of Hellas, possessed as heir- 
looms by the world of today, there are perhaps none which 
we should prize so highly as the ideas of intellectual and 
pohtical hberty which the Greeks were the first to conceive 
and make real" (Botsford). The conditions which de- 
veloped in Greece pure democracy have not appeared in 
the world since, ^ The natural beauty of land and sky and 
sea, which influenced the mind toward noble thoughts; the 

22 



GBNl^RAL HISTORY. 

genial, equable climate, which brought no hard conditions 
into life, but simplified it; its water boundaries which, 
though making commerce and intercourse easy, preserved 
its institutions from ahen influence so usual in most situa- 
tions through constant border^ incursions, all tended to 
develop the Hellenes, naturally so incUned, into a most in- 
tellectual, spiritual, temperate race, and democracy was 
possible. With such environment and heredity a galaxy 
of thinkers and workers appeared such as no other nation 
has boasted. First came those who studied into natural 
phenomena, the composition of the earth and the relations of 
the heavenly bodies, like Anaxagoras and Protagoras; 
then the moral philosophers Socrates, Plato and Aris- 
totle, whose Rhetoric and Poetics are known to every 
student of literature; Phidias and Praxiteles, whose 
creations are models in art; Demonstlieiies, still known 
as the greatest orator of the world; Solon, whose princi- 
ples are still guiding nations. Pericles, and Miltiades, 
besides the many names renowned in literature, beginning 
with the bhnd Homer and the nameless singers who pro- 
duced the Homeric poems. Myers writes: "In literature, 
the Greeks far surpass every other people of antiquity. 
The degree of excellence obtained by them in poetry, in 
oratory, and in history, has scarcely been surpassed by any 
modern people or race. Here, as in art, they are still 
the teachers of the world." 



23 



G:gNlSRAI, HISTORY. 
OUTLINE QUIZZES, 

SECOND PAPER, 

1. Trace the wanderings of Abraham from Chaldea 
to Egypt. 

2. What was the Exodus? 

3. What effect had their slavery in Egypt upon the 
Israelites? What was the first form of government of the 
Hebrews after their arrival in the "promised land"? 

4. Describe the reign of Solomon. 

5. What was the Babylonian Captivity? 

6. Who was the founder of the Persian Empire? 

7. With what peoples did Darius I carry on war? 

8. Describe his reforms in the goverment of Persia. 

9. What was the greatest undertaking of Xerxes I? 

10. Describe the religion of the Persians. 

11. How did the geography of Greece affect the his- 
tory of the people? 

12. What is meant by the Heroic Age? Name two 
events of that period. 

13. Who were the following: Zeus, Apollo, Ares, 
Athena? 

14. What was the aim of the regulations of Lycurgus? 
Were they successful? 

15. Describe the reforms of Solon. 

16. What was the Ecclesia, ostracism, a deme? 

17. What was the cause of the Graeco- Persian War? 
The outcome? 

18. What was the cause of the Peloponnesian War? 
The outcome? 

19. Who were the following: Pisistratus, Pericles, 
Themistocles, Demosthenes? 

20. Give the extent of the territories of Alexander 
the Great. Why was the Kingdom of the Ptolemies im- 
portant in the world's history. 

24 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 

(SECOND PAPER.) 

"Man is bom to be a citizen." 

GOVERNMENT WITHIN THE STATE. 

From 1776 to 1789 the states were banded together with 
the purpose of meeting dangers which were common to 
all, but each state clung tenaciously to the idea of state 
sovereignty; and the union of these states under the 
Articles of Confederation could not correctly be called a 
Governmental Union. In 1789 the Constitution was 
adopted and from being a Band of States, the states, 
united, became a Banded State. The powers delegated to 
the national government were such as related to matters 
that concern all the states alike. "The powers no^ dele- 
gated to the United States by the Constitution, nor pro- 
hibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states re- 
spectively or to the people." The governmental powers 
exerted within the state by or under the authority of the 
state government, are those which most closely and most 
frequently affect the every-day life of the citizen. Ex- 
cept through the Postoffice Department the National Gov- 
ernment seldom affects him directly. 

A great statesman has said: "It will not be denied 
that the State Government touches the citizen and his 
interests twenty times where the National Government 
touches him once. For the peace of our streets and the 
health of our cities; for the administration of justice in 
nearly all that relates to the security of person and prop- 
erty, and the punishment of crime; for the education of 
our children and the care of unfortunate and dependent 
citizens; for the collection and assessment of much the 
larger portion of our direct taxes, and for the proper ex- 



civil/ GOVERNMENT. 1 



penditure of the same, for all this, and much more we de- 
pend upon the honesty and wisdom of our General As- 
sembly (or legislature) and not upon the Congress at 
Washington." 

LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 

The Home has an important bearing npon government 
proper. It is, in itself, a complete government as far as 
the children are concerned. The parents exert executive, 
legislative and judicial authority. By them, certain rules of 
conduct are laid down for the children to follow; this is 
legislative. By them, decisions are made relative to the 
violation of these rules, testimony is heard in cases of dis- 
pute; this is judicial. By them, too, when judgment has 
been pronounced, the penalty is inflicted; this is executive. 
In the home the child is prepared for his hfe as citizen. 
There he learns to submit to authority and to respect the 
rights of others— two very necessary quahflcations for 
good citizenship. 

In much the same way the discipline of school life is a 
valuable preparation for citizenship. In school, as well as 
in the home, there must be submission to legitimate au- 
thority; but, also, new duties arise because of the fact that 
the child is a member of the school. Indeed we might call 
the child a citizen of the school, a good or bad citizen in 
proportion to his obedience, his performance of school 
tasks, and his personal attitude toward his playmates. In 
this last item is a feature that must not be overlooked. On 
the playground and in the class organizations and the so- 
cieties of the more advanced grades, the idea of working 
together systematically to attain a common object becomes 
a famihar and natural process and the choosing of certain 
pupils to act for, or as leaders of the others, brings into 



civil/ gov]^rnm:ent. 

operation the principle of representation, which play such 
an important part in all divisions of our government. 

THE SCHOOL DISTRICT. 

By some writers the school district is considered the 
smallest division of our government. The objection to 
this might be raised that it exists for a specific purpose 
and not to exert general governmental control and there- 
fore should not be called a division of governmentj but 
it is better to class it thus because its officers are duly 
elected by the citizens of the district and are a truly rep- 
resentative body. The officers of the district are called 
directors. They are three in number. They have in 
charge the general supervision of school affairs in the dis- 
trict; They employ the teachers; they keep the school 
buildings in repair, they make rules and regulations for 
the school; they ascertain how much money is needed to 
conduct the school for the ensuing year and certify this to 
the proper authority; they purchase school supphes and 
sometimes furnish books for needy children. 

In cities the work of directing schools is done by 
Boards of Education whose work is similar in nature to 
that of the directors but more extensive. 

THE TOWN OR CIVIL TOWNSHIP. 

The usual officers of the civil township are: the Su- 
pervisor, who is the chief officer, has general directive 
power and acts as treasurer of all township funds except 
the money used for the construction of roads and bridges; 
the Clerk, who keeps all records of the town, gives notice 
of town meetings and acts as secretary of the same; the 
Assesssor, who estimates the taxable value of property; 
the Collector, who collects the taxes; the three Road 
Commissioners, who improve the roads in any way that 
they deem best, (one acts as treasurer of highway funds ) ; 



civile GOVBRNM:gNT. 

the Justices of the Peace, (usually two), who have 
limited jurisdiction which varies in different states; and 
the Constables, (usually two), who are guardians of the 
peace. 

THE COUNTY. 

The county varies in extent, shape, and somewhat in 
its government in different states. In many of the eastern 
and southern states they are irregular in shape and vary in 
extent from an average of about 307 square miles in Ken- 
tucky, to 1,000 square miles in South Carohna. In the west 
they tend toward greater uniformity in aU respects. 

THE COUNTY BOARD. 

In counties having township government, the legisla- 
tive body of the county is made up of the Supervisors and 
Assistant Supervisors from the several townships. It 
should be noted that these officials are elected township 
officers, and are members of the County Board ex-offiicio. 
This Board is called the Board of Supervisors. As the 
number of Assistant Supervisors is guaged by the increase 
of population it follows -that the more dense the population 
in the towns, the larger is the Board of Supervisors. 

In counties not under township organization the Coun- 
ty Board is made up of three Commissioners elected at 
large in the county. These must legislate for and adminis- 
ter the affairs of the county in practically the same way as 
does the Board of Supervisors. The County Board passes 
measures for the promotion of the public welfare within 
the county and makes appropriations from county funds to 
carry out such measures. It may assist the towns in the 
construction and repair of roads and bridges. Where 
there is no town government, the commissioners divide 
the county into road districts. The County Board provides 
for the payment of salaries of county officials, and for 



civil/ GOVBRNMBNT. 

other contingent expenses. The poor of the county, the 
public health, the court house and other property of the 
county, are important details which the County Board has 
in charge. 

THE COUNTY CLERK. 

This oflScer keeps the official seal of the county and 
affixes it to documents requiring it. He grants marriage 
licenses, keeps a record of the same and has charge of 
other county records, books and papers. He attends the 
meetings of the County Board and records its proceedings. 
He acts as clerk of the county court. A copy of any coun- 
ty record may be obtained by the payment of a fee. 

THE SHERIFF. ^ 

The sheriff, assisted by deputies, makes arrests, cares 
for prisoners, has charge of the county jail; when author- 
ized by the court, conducts convicted persons to the state 
penitentiaries and dependent persons, such as lunatics, to 
other state institutions. It is his business to quell any riot 
or other general disturbance in the county. He may depu- 
tize others to help, and, if with this help he is unable to 
cope with the disturbing element, he may call upon the 
governor of the state to send state troops. If these, in 
turn, should be unable to restore peace, the governor may 
call upon the president to send U. S. troops. Thus, indi- 
rectly, the sheriff has back of him the military power of 
the nation. 

TREASURER. 

This officer has the responsibility of caring for all 
county funds and of keeping a faithful record of the re- 
ceipts and expenditures. The county funds have their 
origin in taxes, fees, and fines. He disburses money only 
upon authorization by the County Board. 



civiiy govkrnm:e^nt. 

CORONER. 

If a person dies suddenly and there is no physician to 
vouch for the cause of the death, it is the duty of the 
Coroner to summon a jury to investigate the cause, and re- 
port the same. If this jury finds that death was caused by 
foul means and there is strong suspicion against some one, 
that person may be arrested and held for preUminary ex- 
amination. The Coroner usually serves as sheriff in case 
the latter official is incapacitated and may arrest the sheriff 
if he turns criminal. 

THE RECORDER. 

In some counties the clerk of the circuit court acts as 
Recorder. In others of greater population this is a distinct 
office. The Recorder is required to keep on file deeds, 
mortgages and other papers relating to the transfer and 
ownership of real estate. 

STATE'S ATTORNEY. 

This officer is sometimes called County Attorney. 
He is called State's Attorney because he prosecutes of- 
fenders against the laws of the state within his county. 
This is his chief duty; but he is also the legal representa- 
tive of the county and defends county officers when suits 
are brought against them as officials. 

COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS. 

Another important officer of the county is the Super- 
intendent of Schools or School Commissioner as he is called 
in some states. He has general supervision of the public 
schools throughout the county. It is his duty to keep 
pace with current educational thought, so that he may be 
more able to incite teachers to adopt improved methods; 
to visit schools and to suggest ways of correcting any ex- 
isting weaknesses; to hold teacher's institutes; to conduct 

6 



civil/ GOV:^RNM]gNT. 

examinations of teachers and to issue certificates to those 
who are qualified; and to advise school trustees and 
directors in regard to their duties. 

CITY GOVERNMENT. 

The representative system does not seem to work so 
well when applied to the government of large cities as it does 
in the national and state governments or in the other branch- 
es of local government. In the first place the problem is a 
new one, the cities having grown so rapidly that the manner 
of government could not be adjusted to meet the new needs 
arising from the immense increase in population. In 1789 
the largest city in the United States, Philadelphia, had but 
42,000 inhabitants. It now has about one and one -fourth 
milMons. New York had 33,000; it now has al3but three 
and one-half millions. In 1840 Chicago had but 4,000 in- 
habitants; it now has more than one and one -half millions. 
In a large city there is much opportunity for the organiza- 
tion of cUques or rings of politicians for private gain at 
public expense. From 1868 to 1871 the government of 
New York City was under the control of a band of political 
conspirators called the Tweed Ring, who, during that time, 
robbed the people of millions of dollars. There are so 
many offices to be filled that voters cannot know whether 
the candidates are qualified or not; nor can they keep 
track of their actions after election. A great many po- 
sitions are filled by appointments which are frequently 
made as rewards for pohtical services rather than because 
of merit; and if the persons holding the appointing power 
are corrupt, that corruption spreads like a contagious dis- 
ease through the whole body of the city government. 

THE MAYOR. 

The city executive officer is the Mayor, whose business 
it is to see that ordinances of the city are enforced and that 



the city officials and employes perform their duties. He 
has extensive appointing power, usually subject to the ap- 
proval of the council. In most cities he presides over the 
meetings of the council but has no vote unless there is a 
tie. 

THE CITY COUNCHi. 

The legislative body of the city is the City Council, 
which in most cities is made up of two chambers, called the 
Aldermen and the Common Council. This council 
makes laws called ordinances, for the city, but these must 
be in accord with the laws of the state. It decides how 
much money is to be raised by taxation for the support of 
the city government; it provides for a pohce force to pro- 
tect Hfe and property; it provides for protection against 
fire through a fire department, the building and repair of 
streets, the erection and care of city buildings, the con- 
struction of waterworks and fighting plants, the health of 
the city, the promotion of education in the city through 
public fibraries and other means, the granting of charters 
or franchises to street railways and other corporations. 
All these, and many other details of a minor nature come 
within the jurisdiction of the city council. The city clerk, 
treasurer, city attorney, comptroller, city engineer, and 
pohce -magistrate should be mentioned as important of- 
ficers of a city. Most of the work of administering the af- 
fairs of the city is done by standing committees appointed 
by the mayor from the members of the city council. 

(Suggestion. — Wherever it is possible a student of Civics should 
call on local officials and talk with them personally about their duties 
and about any other matters with which they are concerned as repre- 
sentatives of the people; in this way information would be obtained 
first hand, special features which a text-book cannot include could be 
noted, and the men who hold office would be to the student, not imagrined 
embodiments of principles, but living-, visible, human parts of the great 
body politic. Another method that ought to be used by a student, who 
cares to keep up with the times, is to clip from newspapers items that 

8 



civiiy gov]5?rnm:e^nt. 

illustrate principles relating to the government of our country. These 
items as they are collected from day to day, should be pasted, one on a 
page, in a blank book, and beneath, on the same page with the clipping 
should be written an explanation of the principle involved. At least 
fifty such clippings should be collected.) 

STATE GOVERNMENT. 

The chief executive oflacer of the state is the Governor. 
His most important duties and powers are, practically, the 
same in all the states. 

1. When the legislature meets, he sends a message to 
it setting forth his views on important questions and ad- 
vising needed legislation. 

2. As commander-in-chief of the state militia, it is his 
duty to assist in quelling any disturbance in the state that 
the sheriff cannot quell. He may not engage in wjr unless 
the state is actually invaded; but the President may call 
upon him to assist, with the miMtia, United States troops. 

3. The governor has the power of pardoning offend- 
ers against state law. Where there is a State Board of 
Pardons, the governor acts upon its recommendations. 
It is easy to see that a governor who is inclined to abuse 
this power may turn loose vile and undeserving criminals, 
those human leeches that prey upon the hfe-blood of 
society and thus reverse the movement of the machinery 
of justice. 

4. He may veto bills that have been passed by the 
legislature. In four states, viz: Rhode Island, Delaware, 
Ohio and North Carohna, the governor has not this power. 
In thirteen states the governor may veto parts of a bill 
that is concerned with the expenditure of state funds, 
without vetoing parts which he approves. By a two- 
thirds vote of both houses a bill may become a law not- 
withstanding the veto. 

The other usual executive officers of the state are, the 
Lieutenant-Governor, who might be called vice-governor, 



'.M 



civiiy gov:e^rnm^nt. 

since he acts as governor if that official is incapacitated; 
the Secretary of State, who has charge of state records; 
the State Treasurer, who guards the funds; the Auditor, 
who is sometimes called the state book-keeper, and on 
whose order the treasurer pays out money; the Attorney - 
General, who acts as lawyer for the state and is the legal 
advisor of state officials; and the State Superintendent of 
Public Instruction, who is adviser of county superintend- 
ents and is the head of the whole public school system 
of the state. These officials are all elected by popular 
vote. There are many other officials, such as mem- 
bers of State Boards, and heads of state institutions, 
such as asylums for the insane, schools for the deaf and 
dumb, or for the bhnd, orphans' homes, etc., who are ap- 
pointed by the governor, subject, usually, to approval by 
the senate. 

The State Legislature, or, as it is called in some states, 
the General Assembly, is the legislative power in the state. 
It has two divisions, the upper house and the lower house, 
or, the senate and house of representatives. The members 
of these two divisions all represent population. The sena- 
tors being fewer in number than the representatives, rep- 
resent, each, a greater number of people. The usual term 
for senators is four years, for representatives, two. As 
far as rank is concerned the members of the two houses 
are equal. 

^*The suffrage by which the legislature is elected is al- 
most universal. It is given in all the states to all male 
citizens who have reached the age of one-and-twenty. In 
many it is given also to denizens of foreign birth who have 
declared an intention of becoming citizens. In some it is 
given without further specification to every male inhabi- 
tant of voting age. Residence in the state for some period, 

10 



CIVIIy GOV:i^RNM:gNT. 

varying from three months to two years and a half is also 
generally required; sometimes a certain length of residence 
in the county, the town or even in the voting precinct, is 
prescribed. In many of the states it is necessary to have 
paid one's poll-tax. There is no longer any property 
quahfication, though there was until recently in Rhode 
Island. Criminals, idiots and lunatics are excluded from 
the suffrage. Some states alone exclude duellists and men 
who bet on elections. Connecticut and Massachusetts 
shut out persons who are unable to read. In no other 
country has access to citizenship and the suffrage been 
made so easy." —John Fiske. 

THE STATE JUDICIARY. 

Each state has a complete system of courts for*the ad- 
ministration of justice in all cases both civil and criminal 
that do not include a violation of United States law, and 
that do not involve the interpretation of the United States 
Constitution. The courts of the justices of the peace have 
been mentioned as the lowest of the courts within the 
state ; their jurisdiction is lihaited to minor offenses and 
civil suits involving a small amount of money. The 
supreme court of the state is the final court of appeal. 
Between these two we find: the county court, the probate 
court, the circuit or superior court and the appellate court. 

(Note to the Student.— We expect to prepare a paper devoted 
entirely to a discussion of the g-overnment of your state. We need not, 
therefore, continue farther this general treatment of state g-overnmetit.) 

THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

PREAMBLE. 

We, the People of the United States, in order to form a 
Tfiore perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tran- 
quility, provide for the comfimon defense, promote the general 
welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and 
our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the 
United States of America. 

n 



civil/ GOVBRNMBNT. 

The governmental power emanates from tlie people 
considered as a unit. The purposes of the government 
were, "to form a more perfect union than had existed be- 
fore; the states had been working independently of each 
other; to 'estabhsh justice' which had frequently been 
denied by one state to citizens of other states who hap- 
pened to be within its borders; there had been no national 
courts; to insure domestic tranquihty"; internal dissen- 
tions between states and within each state had been com- 
mon; "to provide for the common defense"; the necessity 
of a common defense brought about the union of the 
states; to "promote the general welfare"; this would cover 
all phases of proper government; "and secure the bless- 
ings of hberty to ourselves and our posterity;" liberty was 
the bright star of hope to the colonists and this new basis 
of government was to guarantee liberty. 

ARTICLE I. — LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT. 

Section I. All legislative powers herein granted shall be 
vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist 
of a Senate and House of Representatives. 

Most of the framers of the constitution were in favor 
of a single house of legislation. But a dispute arose. The 
small states wanted equal representation with the large 
states and the large states thought the representation 
should be in proportion to population. By deciding to 
have two houses a compromise was effected. To satisfy 
the small states, there were to be two senators from each 
state regardless of population. To please the large states, 
the members of the house of representatives were to be 
chosen according to population. It is doubtless better to 
have two houses because one acts as a check upon the 
other and thus hasty and unwise legislation may sometimes 
be forestalled. 

12 



Civile G0V^RNM]^N1^. 

Section II. Clause 1. The House of Representatives 
shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the 
people of the several States, and the electors in each State 
shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most 
numerous branch of the State Legislature. 

Each member now represents 194,182 people. The 
ratio changes after each U. S. census. There are now 386 
members. The two years during which a set of represen- 
tatives serves is called a Congress, and each Congress is 
numbered. The 58th Congress begins March 4th, 1903, and 
ends March 4th, 1905. By the term electors in this clause 
is meant voters, and those who are quahfied to vote for 
representatives to the state legislature are entitled to vote 
for members of congress. % 

Clause 2. No person shall be a representative who shall 
not have attained to the age of twenty -five years, and been 
seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, 
when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall 
be chosen. 

These qualifications relate to age, citizenship and res- 
idence. The second quahfication would not affect a person 
born in this country. He is a citizen from birth. But a 
foreigner would have to reside here five years before he 
could become a citizen, then seven years after that before he 
would be quahfied to act as representative. It is rational 
that a representative should be an inhabitant of the state 
which he represents and by custom he must be a resident 
of the congressional district which he represents. 

Clause 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be ap- 
portioned among the several States which may be included 
within this Union, according to their respective numbers, 
which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of 
free persons, including those bound to service for a term of 
years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all 

13 



civil, GOV:[^RNMENl^. 

other persons. TJie actual enumeration shall t>e made within 
three years, after the first meeting of the Congress of the 
United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, 
in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of 
representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, 
but each State shall have at least one representative; and until 
such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire 
shall be entitled to choose three; Massachusetts, eight; Rhode 
Island and Providence Plantations, one; Connecticut, five; 
New York, six; New Jersey, four; Pennsylvania, eight; Dela- 
ware, one; Maryland, six; Virginia, ten; North Carolina, 
five; South Carolina, five; and Georgia, three. 

The United States has very seldom leAded direct taxes. 
The taxes raised for national purposes, e. g. internal 
revenue, include the tax on the manufacture of intox- 
icating liquor and tobacco products, and the customs 
or tariff duties, which are taxes on certain articles im- 
ported. These are called indirect taxes because the final 
payment of the tax falls upon the consumer. A sort of 
direct tax is sometimes levied to meet some emergency as 
in the case of war with Spain when stamps had to »be 
bought of the government and placed on certain papers 
and documents. The census is taken every ten years. 
The next one will be in 1910. This census is used as a 
basis in determining the number of representatives from 
each state except the Indians who are wards of the gov- 
ernment and are not taxed would not be included. The 
clause, "three fifths of all other persons," does not apply 
now, as it referred to the slaves. It was inserted as a 
compromise between the northern states, which believed 
that no slaves should be represented, and the southern 
states, which beheved that all should be represented, since 
women and children were counted though not permitted to 
vote. In order to determine the number of representa- 
tives to which any state is entitled, divide the number 

14 



civiiy gov:e^rnmbnt. 

representing the population of that state by 194,182 the 
present ratio. Each state is divided into as many con- 
gressional districts as it is entitled to representatives in 
congress excepting where some are elected at large from 
the whole state. The boundary hues of the district are 
changed, where necessary, after each census, so that each 
district may contain approximately the ratio of represen- 
tation. 

Clause 4. When vacancies happen in the representation 
from any State, the executive authority thereof shall issue 
writs of election to fill such vacancies. 

If a representative dies, or, for any other reason va- 
cates his oflSice, the governor, or acting governor, of his 
state makes public announcement that on a certaiix date a 
special election will be held in the district affected, to fill 
such vacancy. The person elected serves the remainder of 
the term. 

Clause 5. The House of Representatives shall choose 
their Speaker and other officers; and shall have the sole power 
of impeachment. 

The Speaker is the presiding officer of the house. 
Most of the work of the house is done by standing com- 
mittees. When a bill is presented, it is referred to the ap- 
propriate committee and what that committee recom- 
mends in regard to the bill is very hkely to fix its destiny. 
As the speaker appoints these committees he has great 
power in influencing legislation; for he may know, in ad- 
vance, the opinions of members on proposed measures. 
When a U. S. official has abused the power of his office in 
a criminal way, formal accusation may be made by the 
House of Representatives and this is impeachment. A 
committee from the House acts as prosecutor before the 
Senate which sits as jury and decides the punishment, if 
any. 

15 



CIVIIV GOVBRNM^NT. 

Section III. Clause 1, The Senate of the United States 
shall be composed of two senators from each State, chosen by 
the Legislature thereof , for six years; and each senator shall 
have one vote. 

Since fche senators from any state represent the whole 
state, it was thought that the most dignified body of the 
state, the legislature, should choose them. It was thought, 
also, that being elected in a different way from the rep- 
resentatives, the two houses would differ in character and 
would be likely to examine measures from different points 
of view. Many people now favor the plan of electing 
senators by popular vote. It is claimed by these that 
there is much bribery resorted to, under the present sys- 
tem, and that, frequently, men are elected to the state 
legislature, not because of special fitness, but because, in 
the party caucuses they pledged themselves to support 
certain candidates for the United States Senate. 

The Senate is sometimes called the "permanent house" 
because only one third of the members go out of office at 
one time. Senators are chosen in one-third of the states 
at a time, and hence every two years, but each senator 
serves for six years. As there are now forty-five states, 
there are ninety senators. 

Clause 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in 
consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as 
equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the sena- 
tors of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the 
second year; of the second class, at the expiration of the 
fourth year; and of the third class, at the expiration of the 
sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second year; 
and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during 
the recess of the Legislature of any State, the executive thereof 
may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of 
the Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 

16 



civiiy gov:e^rnm:^nt. 

The longer tenure of office and the fact that only one 
third of the members can be "new," make the Senate a 
more experienced body than the House of Representatives. 

Clause 3. No person shall be a senator who shall not 
have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years 
a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected j 
be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 

Dignity is added to the Senate by this greater age 
qualification and this greater required period of citizen- 
ship. In a measure it is analagous to the House of Lords 
in England. 

Clause 4. The Vice-President of the United States shall 
be president of the Senate, but shall have no vote unless they 
be equally divided. 

This is the principal duty of the vice-presid^t, and, 
even here, there is always ready a president protempore 
to act in the absence of the vice-president. In case of the 
death of the vice-president his duties are not considered 
onerous enough to require a successor, and so his office re- 
mains vacant till the close of the presidential term, the 
president protempore acting continuously as presiding 
officer of the Senate. 




17 



civil, GOV^RNMilSNT. 
OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

(SECOND PAPER.) 

1. How does a child's life in the home affect his life 
as a citizen? 

2. How is the school related to citizenship? 

3. What are the duties of school directors? 

4. Name the officers of the civil township. 

5. How does the town government aifect the County 
Board? 

6. Why does representative government fail when 
appHed to larger cities? 

7. Name the executive officers of the state? 

8. What are the chief duties of the governor? 

9. What are the objects of government according to 
the Preamble? 

10. What are the divisions of Congress? 

11. How are Representatives chosen? For how long? 

12. How are they apportioned? 



18 



m 



DIDACTICS. 

(SECOND PAPER.) 

HISTORY OF EDUCATION 
(Continued.) 

EDUCATION FROM THE BIRTH OF CHRIST TO THE 
REFORMATION. 

For many reasons Christ's teaching did not bear im- 
mediate fruit in the educational field. It was first neces- 
sary to convert and elevate pagan nations. In doing this 
the early Christians had to endure untold hardships and 
were relentlessly persecuted. They, therefore, came to 
look upon all pagan institutions as bad and were not dis- 
posed to give their spirit to the then existing scnools and 
gradually leaven them with the idea of individual worth. 
On the contrary, they established schools known to us as 
**cateclietical schools" whose chief function was to 
prepare men and women for Christian baptism. - As was 
to be expected these schools made the Bible the basis of 
instruction. The Ten Commandineiits and the his- 
tory of the prophets and patriarchs were industriously 
drilled into people of all ages. Of these schools the most 
celebrated was at Alexandria, where the doctrines of 
Christianity came into close contact with heathen culture 
and where educated men sought instruction and Christian 
baptism. Hence it came to pass that learned teachers 
were selected and this school became the forerunner of 
Christian Scientific Theology. 

ASCETICISM. 

From now on through the Middle Ages Christian ed- 
ucation took an ascetic turn, men looked down on the 
things of this world and even despised them in order to make 
sure of the future world It was believed that the body 



DIDACTICS- 

was the seat of sin and hence various forms of physical 
torture and self-denial were imposed upon it. By this 
me^ns the forces of the body were supposed to be weak- 
ened and the soul strengthened. There were two classes 
of these ascetics, the hermits who withdrew from society 
and practiced their abnegation in solitude and monks who 
lived together in monasteries, taking vows of strictest 
self-denial. Ascetecism reached its climax early in the 
fifth century, and the influence it exerted on education, 
science, history and art was far-reaching. 

The priesthood was elevated to a position of too much 
importance and rehgion and its doctrines became the 
absorbing subjects of human thought and activity. Science 
sank into theology, history consisted of legends of saints, 
while education was given a theological turn which lasted 
for centuries. Indeed, "this ascetic spirit may be regarded 
as the controlling principle in Christian education prior to 
the Reformation." 

MONASnO SCHOOLS. 

Under the influence of this ascetic monasteries in- 
creased rapidly and by the end of the sixth century they 
could be found in all the countries that had once composed 
the great Roman Empire. As long as the monks Hved in 
purity these monasteries were a blessing to the world, for 
they became at once asylums for the oppressed and down- 
trodden, stations for the conversion of heathen to Chris- 
tianity, repositories for learning, science and art. The 
world Is indebted to them for the preservation 
and transmission to later ages of much of the 
learning and culture of antiquity. 

As the heathen schools disappeared the church began 
to regard education as one of its exclusive functions. 



DIDACTICS. 

The course of instruction in these monastic schools 
embraced the seven liberal arts divided into two classes, 
the triviiim which included Latin, Logic and Rhetoric, 
and the quadrivium, which included Arithmetic, 
Geometry, Astronomy and Music. To complete these 
courses required seven years. Latin, the language of the 
church, was made the basis of instruction, and everywhere 
the mother-tongue was neglected. The studies taught 
were selected because of a real or imaginary connection 
with the church. For instance Geometry was considered 
important because in the construction of Noah's Ark all 
kinds of circles were used. 

Besides these monastic schools there were tv^ other 
classes of schools which owed their origin to the church, 
the Cathedral and the Parochial Schools. The Ca- 
thedral schools resembled the monastic schools in the 
course of instruction and were designed chiefly for the 
preparation of candidates for the priesthood. 

The Parochial schools were conducted in each parish 
under the supervision of a priest and were designed for the 
instruction of children in the doctrines of the church and 
for preparation for church membership. They did not 
differ greatly from the modern Parochial school except 
that but Uttle stress was put on Reading and Writing. 

- During the time of Charlemagne the educational fa- 
cihties of these schools were greatly increased. Charle- 
magne went so far as to plan a system of popular schools. 
He opposed the immorahty and worldliness which had ta- 
ken hold of the monks and priests, and urged them to im- 
prove the already existing schools. He required the 
priests to teach, in addition to rehgion, reading, arithmetic 
and singing. 



■K-M 



DIDACTICS. 

SECULAR AND KNIGHTLY EDUCATION. 

In the latter half of the middle ages, secular education 
came into prominence as a reaction against the one-sided 
reUgious character of the ecclesiastical schools. This 
education assumed two directions: the one was the off- 
spring of chivarly and has been called knightly educa- 
tion; the other had its origin in the business necessities of 
the cities and has been called burgher or town education. 

In the citizen schools reading, writing and arithmetic 
were the chief studies, as they were held most practical. 
The teachers of these schools received small pay and led a 
sort of wandering life, going from place to place in search 
of work. 

To become a knight a boy at the age of seven became 
the attendant of some knight, from whom he learned 
music, chess and knightly manners. At about fourteen 
years of age he became a squire. From now on his train- 
ing assumed a more physical and niihtary nature and con- 
tinued until he reached the age of twenty -one or two, 
when with great pomp and ceremony he was elevated to 
knighthood. Among other things it was his duty as a 
knight to honor and protect womanhood. Among the 
knightly class female education received much attention, 
but with other classes it was neglected. 

Near the close of the Middle Ages a scientific spirit took 
hold of the people. The awakening of this spirit was due 
primarily to two causes: the first was the increase of hu- 
man learning due to the crusades and the elevation of the 
non-priest class; the second was the influence of the 
Arabian Schools. Mohammedanism was carried by force 
over large parts of Asia, Africa and Europe. Empires 
were established in which learning played no mean role. 
The writings of the Greeks were translated into the Arabic 



DIDACTICS. 

language, and schools were established in all the principal 
cities. In these schools grammar, mathematics, astron- 
omy, philosophy, chemistry and medicine were studied 
with success. The science of chemistry was originated by 
the Arabians, and for a time they were the intellectual 
leaders of Europe. Christian youths attended their schools 
and carried from them to their homes the Arabian science 
and thereby stimulated intellectual activity in the Chris- 
tian nations. 

The most important result of this newly awakened 
spirit was the founding of the Universities. These arose 
independently of state and church. At first they consisted 
of free associations of learned men and ambitioi^p youths 
who were drawn and held together by a common interest 
in science. The first Universities were those of Bologna, 
Salerno and Paris. These were founded in the twelfth 
century. The moral tone of the Universities was very 
low. Fights and immoral practices were common. Not- 
withstanding this fact the influence of the Universities 
soon began to be felt, and emperors were moved to afford 
them protection and assistance. 

BE VIEW OF PERIOD. 

During the Dark Ages the development of education 
was slight, and as we read the history of this period we are 
more impressed in educational matters with what not to 
do than with what to do. But as during winter the earth 
rests in order the better to bring forth her harvests in the 
summer, so in these dark days preparation was being 
made for the great intellectual and spiritual harvest, the 
fruits of which we still enjoy. 

EDUCATION FROM THE REFORMATION TO THE PRESENT TIME. 

The Reformation in the sixteenth century was one of 
the greatest, if not the greatest event in modem history. 

5 



DIDACTICS. 

Its influence on education and the development of hu- 
manity is surpassed only by the advent of Christ. It came 
as the dawn to a long dark night, and marks the beginning 
of a new era of progress. However, it cannot be looked 
upon as an isolated fact, for there were many concurring 
circumstances which prepared the way for it and gave it 
power in the world. Important among these was the re- 
vival of learning. 

THE REVrVAL OP CLASSICAL LEARNING. 

The Revival of Learning had its origin in Italy in 
the work as well as the zeal of the three great Italian 
writers of the fourteenth century— Dante, Boccaccio and 
Petrarch. These men had made a profound study of the 
ancient classics and used their influence to spread it. A 
little later Chrysoloras, a Greek, was appointed a teacher 
in Florence and there began the spread of the intellectual 
treasures of his country. A half century later (1453) 
when Constantinople fell, the educational treasures and 
the culture of Greece and Rome, as well as those of the 
East, were thrown open and they spread over all Europe, 
exerting an influence on education which can be traced 
down to and observed in the schools of today. Greek 
scholars and teachers had to leave Constantinople and 
they became at once the instructors of Europe and the 
emancipators of the human mind. At this time, as noted 
above, the monks were the teachers and the monasteries 
the repositories of learning. But the monks had degen- 
erated, had become lazy and sensuous, and hence were no 
longer fit to be called leaders. Nevertheless they opposed 
the New Learning with renewed vigor, for they saw in it a 
lessening of their power and influence. Among the leaders 
of this New Learning Agricola, ReucMin and Eras- 
mus are worthy of special consideration. 



DIDACTICS. 

AGRICOLA. 

Agricola was born in 1443, in Germany. He studied 
under the great thinkers of his time and became one of the 
profoundest and most eloquent scholars of this period. It 
was he who recognized the incorrect use of the Latin lan- 
guage in his native country, and he did more than any one 
else to correct this and to introduce the learning of Italy 
into Germany. Like others of his time, he believed that 
the Latin language was the permanent vehicle of thought. 
At the same time he thought much of his mother -tongue. 
He looked upon the school not as a place of play or leisure, 
but as a place full of cares— a place for work. He thought 
that a teacher should be a person who could teach, speak 
and act at the same time, and that such a teaqj^er should 
be sought after dihgently and paid the highest possible 
salary. 

REUCHLIN. 

Reuchlin was also born in Germany a Kttle later than 
Agricola, 1455 being the exact date. He may be styled the 
pioneer in the study of the Hebrew language. He was led 
to take up this study because of the great hght it would 
throw upon religion. He believed that every minister 
should be able to read the Bible in Hebrew. His work was 
more in the interest of religion than education, but the 
fact that he sought and fought for truth, places him in the 
category of teachers. 

ERASMUS. 

This polished scholar was born at Rotterdam, Holland, 
in 1467, and was one of the "acutest" scholars of his times. 
In several ways Erasmus was helpful to the Reformation. 
In the first place he beheved in tolerance and preached it 
in advance of his times and he opposed the speculative 
theology with which the founders of the church had made 



DIDACTICS. 

so much ado. In the second place he translated the New 
Testament into Greek. This work was not only scholarly, 
but it was undertaken in the interest of a more genuine 
and sincere Christianity, and it proved to be his greatest 
contribution to the Reformation. Erasmus was no great 
reformer, for while he saw the truth in rehgion and did 
much for its purification, he was not a man of sufficient 
courage to sacrifice himself for the truth. In educational 
matters he advocated the study of history, geography, 
biology, and agriculture, and he would not have his teach- 
ers make a display of their knowledge. 

LUTHER. 

The man that stood out alone in the Reformation, 
that towered above all others, was Martin Luther. 
Whether we consider the Reformation in its relation to the 
church or to education, Luther becomes at once the great- 
est Reformer. He was of humble parents, born at Eisleben, 
Germany, November 10, 1483. As a boy he was cruelly 
disciplined, both at home and at school. At eighteen he 
entered the University of Erfurt and in three years re- 
ceived the degree of Master of Arts. Later he entered 
the Augustinian Convent at Erfurt where he spent three 
years in "profound" study, and in 1508 received the ap- 
pointment to a chair in the University of Wittenberg. 
Soon after this he began to preach, not from the surface, 
but from the depths of his soul, and his hearers were 
greatly moved He went to Rome, where he observed 
the profligacy of the papal court. Following his return to 
Wittenberg came the sale of indulgences by Tetzel, which 
aroused Luther's indignation and caused him to write the 
now famous ninety-five theses in which he maintained 
that God alone can forgive sins. These he nailed to the 
church door October 31, 1517, and then and there was born 

8 



DIDACTICS. 

the Reformation. This brought him into open rupture 
with the church, and in 1521 he was ordered to appear be- 
fore the Imperial Diet to answer for his doctrines. It was 
at this meeting, when he stood face to face with the au- 
thority of the Pope, the church and the decrees of the 
councils, that Luther, in reply to the demand of the Pope 
that he recant, said, "Unless I am proved to be in error by 
testimony from the Holy Writ, or by clear and over- 
powering reasons, I cannot and will not recant because it 
is neither safe nor advisable to do anything against con- 
science. Here I stand; I cannot do otherwise. God help 
me. Amen I" These words mark a turning point in his- 
tory and the beginning of the era of personal freedom. 

While Luther did not devote himself directly to the 
cause of education, yet there is scarcely a phase of the 
educational field that he left untouched. He looked upon 
education as not an end in itself, but as a source of wealth 
and power to the individual and state. He beheved in 
the maintenance of family disciphne and pubUc safety, 
and, backed his behef up with strong, common sense argu- 
ments. The office of teacher was in his mind a very ex- 
alted one. Luther's efforts in behalf of education bore 
fruit, for by his appeals all Germany was aroused and in 
1525 the Duke of Mansfield commissioned him to estabhsh 
two schools in his native town, Eisleben— one for primary 
and the other for secondary education. These schools, 
both in their course of study and method of instruction, 
became models, and as a result the forms of church gov- 
ernment adopted by the various Protestant cities and 
states contained provisions for the estabhshment and 
management of schools. In a few years Protestant Ger- 
many was supphed with schools. While these schools were 
defective in almost every particular they were better than 
those that had preceded them. 

9 



DIDACTICS. 

CHARACTER OP EDUCATION AFTER THE REFORMATION. 

It is natural to suppose that, owing to the great re- 
ligious excitement of the times, education would take on 
a religious character, and so we find in the schools great 
prominence given to the catechism and religious psalms. 
No attention whatever was given to real things; books 
alone furnished the information. Teachers were poorly 
paid, and in consequence, the ablest men went into other 
more lucrative vocations. This condition prevailed every- 
where in town schools, but in what were called Latin 
schools we find a somewhat better condition. Here Latin 
formed the chief object of study, while Theology became 
secondary, j, These schools followed in the trail of the "new 
learning" and the best representative of the "new learn- 
ing" during the latter part of the 16th century was John 
Sturm, who conducted a gymnasium at Strasburg. His 
course of study consisted of ten classes, in each of which 
Latin is the most important study. He, too, forgot life, 
and tried to reproduce Greece and Rome in Germany, but 
the German language had come to stay and Sturm's Latin 
had to give way. His influence, however, spread to Eng- 
land and America. Enghsh and American Latin schools 
were modeled after Sturm's. 

THE JESUITS. 

The leaders of the Catholic church and of the "old" in 
religious and educational matters were not content to sit 
idly by while the reformers were leading people to a dif- 
ferent belief and to independent thinking. 

An organization known as the "Jesuits" was formed 
whose chief mission was to combat the <*Ref ormation." 
It was composed of the better class of monks and each 
member made himself a zealous and thorough teacher.** In 
their course of instruction they placed Latin Grammar, 

10 



DIDACTICS. 

Latin Syntax, the humanities and rhetoric. Religious 
training also found an important place in their course of 
nstruction. The Jesuits made a strong effort to keep men 
from going into the Reformed church, but they did more, 
they put new hfe and zeal into the Catholic church and 
greatly purified it. Not only in helping the CathoUc 
church to hold it^ own against its powerful rival, but in 
going out into new lands and teaching pagan and savage 
peoples have the Jesuits been benefactors of the world. 
They were not strong enough, however, to prevent a large 
part of the Catholics from going with Luther and his ad- 
herents. In their schools the Jesuits aimed at thorough- 
ness and in order the better to accomplish this purpose 
they had few studies and short lessons. Elegdht man.- 
ners were cultivated in order that they might gain the 
patronage of the higher classes of society, since they were 
most desirous of keeping these classes in the church. 
They beheved that boys should be well disciphned and to 
this end they resorted to corporeal punishment. This, 
however, was not administered by a Jesuit but by a special 
officer outside of the Order called a corrector. In all 
Catholic countries education gradually passed into the 
control of this Order. Science, history, independence of 
mind and originahty were neglected. 

In brief we may truly characterize the education im- 
mediately following the Reformation as religious, ab- 
stract, unreal and impractical. 

THE REACTION. 

Gradually, however, the human mind began to free 
itself from religious and classical authority, progress be- 
gan to be made in the sciences — Galileo, Newton^ Harvey, 
Torricelli and others began to make their wonderful dis- 
coveries. Bacon propounded his inductive method and 

11 



m 



BIDACTICS. 

Shakespeare dealt the death blow to Latin by giving per- 
manent form to the English in his wonderful plays. 
Under these influences men began to search for a knowl- 
edge of things and a number of men sprang up who be- 
came leaders in this movement, from the dead to the liv- 
ing, from a knowledge of the symbols of things to a 
knowledge of things themselves. Among these we may 
briefly mention "Wolfgang Ratich and John Amos 
Oomenius. 

RATICH. 

This practical teacher was born in 1581 and received a 
classical training. He had hoped to become a preacher, 
but owing to an impediment to his speech, he turned his 
attention to teaching. He strongly advocated the study 
of the mother-tongue and then the sciences. His method 
of teaching reading was what we have called alphabetical, 
and is famihar to all. "Teach only one thing at a time," 
''Nothing should be learned by rote," "Often repeat the 
same thing," "Teach everything by experiment and analy- 
sis," were maxims of his and gives us a cue to his plan of 
teaching. He is a reactionist in that he broke away from 
the study of dead languages and began to give science 
and mother-tongue a more prominent position. 

COMENIUS. 

This noted reformer was born in 1592, in Moravia, and 
his life, while fruitful of good to his fellewmen, was full of 
hardships and sorrows. Forced to leave his native land 
during the thirty years' war, he led a wandering life. He 
wrote many works, of which the most famous are Didac- 
tical Magna, in which he attempts to show how to teach 
all things to all men. It is a profound study of education 
and in it he sets forth the principles of teaching which 
have since changed our methods of instruction. His next 

12 



DIDACTICS- 

work is the "Gate of Tongues Unlocked," in which he ex- 
pounds his methods of teaching language. He believes 
that the understanding and the tongue should ad- 
vance in parallel lines. The success of this book was 
very marked. Later in life he wrote the "World Illus- 
trated," his most famous book. 

Of his many principles we quote the following: "Ed- 
ucation is a development of the whole man," "Educational 
methods should follow the order of nature," "If the super- 
structure is not to totter, the foundation must be laid 
well," "In the sciences, the student should have the object 
studied before him," "Languages are to be learned by 
practice rather than by rule," "Nothing should be taught 
that is not of soHd utility," "Let no task be assigilbd un- 
til the method of doing it has been explained," "The con- 
crete should precede the abstract; the simple, the History," 
and whose "Treatise on Studies" is of particular interest 
to teachers. 

EDUCATION IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 

At the beginning of the eighteenth century we find a 
movement to divorce education from rehgion. This ap- 
peared in two otherwise distinct schools, the one studying 
nature, the other words. 

In 1712 there was born at Geneva a man, Jean Jacques 
Rosseau, who exerted as much influence on education as 
any man of his century. Rosseau was not a practical 
teacher. He did not carry any of his theories into execu- 
tion, but in his book, "Emile," he exerted a wonderful in- 
fluence. Although this book was in direct contradiction to 
the usages of the times in which it was written, many of 
the things he advanced have come to be recognized as fun- 
damental truths. Rosseau advocated the study of nature 
and looked upon education as an unbroken chain from the 

13 






DIDACTICS. 

cradle to maturity. It will be noted that these principles 
are identical with those set forth by Comenius and men- 
tioned already in this article, but it was mainly through 
Rosseau's eloquent expressions of them that they came to 
be so important. His "Emile," should be read by every 
teacher. The theory of following nature, advocated by 
Rosseau, was in a measure carried out a little later by a 
body of educational men who are styled pliilaiithro- 
pinists. Of these the most noted was Basedow, who was 
born in 1723, at Hamburg. 

Against this realistic tendency and also against the 
idea that the ancient languages should be studied only for 
the sake of theology, came a reaction in the form of a 
second humanistic movement which brought into 
promience the study of the classical languages for the 
sake of culture. The men who favor the retention of 
Latin and Greek in the first breath of the child; hence it is 
important to begin to assist nature at a very early age. 
Out of this idea came the Kindergarten. 

NORMAL SCHOOLS. 

We cannot close this review of the history of educa- 
tion without at least mentioning this culminating move- 
ment. About the middle of the last century men began to 
feel that those who are to guide and direct the education of 
the children should have some special training. This idea 
grew until a Normal school was opened in Massachusetts 
and a little later one was opened in New York, and today 
we find from one to seven in every state in the Union. 
Most of these are supported by the State. The names of 
Horace Mann and David Page are inseparably linked with 
the starting of these schools in America. 

14 



DIDACTICS. 

CONCLUSION. 

In writing this review of education it has been neces- 
sary to condense and to leave out things which would have 
found a place in a larger work. However, all the impor- 
tant movements have been taken up and the essentials of 
each briefly stated, so that the student wiU have at his 
command the central facts in the history of education. 




15 



DIDACTICS. 
OUTLINT] QUIZZES. 

(SECOND PAPER.) 

1. Why could not Christ's teachings have an imme- 
diate effect on education ? 

2. Describe the catechetical schools. 

3. What was Asceticism? When did it reach its 
climax ? 

4. What were the Monastic schools ? For what are 
we indebted to them ? 

5. Distinguish between Cathedral and Parochial 
schools. 

6. Who was Charlemagne? His attitude toward 
education ? 

7. What was the chief good in Knightly Education ? 

8. What spirit took hold of the people near the close 
of the middle ages ? Describe it. 

9. What things brought this spirit about ? 

10. What was the most important result of this new 
awakening ? 

11. What were the universities ? 

12. What was the Reformation ? When was it? 

13. What things lead to the Revival of Learning ? 

14. Name some men who had much to do with bring- 
ing about this new learning. 

15. How far-reaching was this revival of the study of 
the ancient classics ? 

16. Who was Martin Luther ? Give a brief outline of 
his Mf e and work. 

17. What was the character of the education just after 
the Reformation ? 

18. What was the Order of Jesuits ? What was 
their purpose and how did they succeed ? 

19. What were some of the things that brought about 
a reaction in educational affairs ? 

20. Describe briefly the education of the Eighteenth 
Century and the rise of Normal Schools. 

16 



ALGEBRA. 

(SECOND PAPER.) 
DIVISION. 

The meaning of the terms used is the same as in arith- 
metic — Whence no definition is given. 

The Rule for Signs given in multiplication applies 
also in division; unlike signs in divisor and dividend 
produce minus (— ), and like signs, plus (+) in the 
quotient. 

CASE 1. 

To divide by a monomial. 

Rule:— Divide the coefficient of each term in tiie 
dividend by the coefficient of the divisor, and to the re- 
sult annex the quotient of the literal parts. (Watch the 
signs.) ^^ 

Principles: 1. The dividend is equal to the product 
of the divisor and quotient. 2. If a factor of a quantity 
is cancelled it is the same as dividing the quantity by that 
factor. 

EXERCISEa. 

1. Divide mny hj m 

Operation: rtiymny 
Ans. ny 

Explanation: The divisor m is a factor of the divi- 
dend; hence if we cancel this factor, the other factor ny, 
is the quotient. 2. Find the quotient of ^bc divided by 
6b. 

Operation: 65)206c 
ic 
Explanation: Dividing the coefficient 20 of the divi- 
dend by that of the divisor 5, and cancelling the common 
factor 6, we have 20bc -h 65 = 4c, the quotient. 



AlyGBBRA. ^ 

In like manner divide the following: 

3. 5x)5xyz 4. 4x )Sabxy 5. 8xy )56xy 

yz 2dby 7 

6. 7b)216cd 7. 3a5c )27abcd 8. 7myi)2 1amn 

3cd 

9. 22a;2/)132mnx^ 

Prove your work by multiplying the quotient by the 
divisor. (Watch the signs.) 

SIGNS OF THE QUOTIENT. 

If the divisor and dividend have like signs, the sign 
of the quotient will be +; if their signs are uulike, the 
sign of the quotient will be — . ' 

EXPLANATION. 

-f m X +'^ = +WM^; therefore -\-mn -r- -\-n = +m 
~m X +^-' = —mn; therefore — mn -^ -\-n = — m 

4-m X — '^ = — '^^Z therefore — mn -. n = -f-m 

— m X — '"' = +^^; therefore -\-mn -. n = — m 

EXERCISES. 

Divide the following: 

1. —IQabc by — 2ac Ans. 86 

2. Ibaby by — Sy Ans. —5ah 

3. 26mnby— 5m Ans. — Sn 

4. — 28xyzhy —7xy Ans. 42? 

5. S5mny by 5my Ans. 7n 

6. 25a6c by — 5d Ans. —5abc 

d 

7. 48x2/ by — 6z 

8. 65a?>cde by 13ae 

9. — 80a5mn by — Sbn 

10. —56x2/2; by — 7mx 

To divide when divisor and dividend have different 
powers of the same letter, subtract the index (exponent) 
of the divisor from that of the dividend. 



AI,G]^BRA. 

Example: To divide a^ by a^; a^ = aaaaa, and a'^=^aa. 
Rejecting the factors aa from the dividened, the result aaa, 
or a^ is the quotient. Subtracting 2, the index of the divi- 
sor, from 5, the index of the dividend, leaves 3, the index 



of the quotient; i. e., a^ -^ 


-a2 = 


= a^'-s^a^ 


EXERCISES. 


Divide the following: 






1. d^ by d3 Ans. d^ 




2. m^ by m^ Ans. m^ 


3. a;9 by x^ Ans. x^ 




4. a^x* by ax'^ 


5. ab^hyab^ 




6. a%2/° by axy^ 


7. x^y^z^ by x^y^z^ 




8. a'^fescs by a%c2 


9. m^n^x^ by mnx 







CASE 2.— TO DIVIDE A POLYNOMIAL BY A MONOMIAL^ 

Rule: Divide each term of the dividend by the di- 
visor, connecting the results by their proper signs. 
Example: Divide mn-f-^a; — my -\-mz by ni 
Solution: m)7nn-\-7nx—my-\-'mz 
Ans. n-{-x—y-{-z 

Divide the following: 

1. 8x4+12x8+16x2+20x by 4a;. Ans. 2x3-f 3xH4a;+6. 

2. 9a3— 6a2— 3a by 3a. Ans. Sa^— 2a— 1. 

3. 16a*x^—Ua^x^-{-12a^x^ by 2a2x2. Ans. 8a2— 7ax+6x2. 

4. 75m6— 60m4— 45m3+30jn2 by 15m2. Ans. 5m'^— 47?i2— 
8m+2. 

5. 62aca;2 — 58a2c2x— 34a3c5a;2+74a3c3x3 by 2acx. Ans. 
Six— 29ac— 17a2c*x+37a2c2x2. 

6. — 72 62/ 3— 40?/3— 58a2/3 by 8?/3. Ans. —96— 5 -7a. 

7. 14x32/2—58x2^3^119x22/2 by 7x^y^. Ans. 2x—8y-{-17. 

8. 65(x— 2/)+39(m-f-n) -52(x-fz) by 13. Ana. 5[x—y) 
+S(m-\-n) — 4(x+z) . 

9.. ^ a2x2(c — d) — ax2(c — d)+a2x(c — d) by ax, 

10. ' a" — a'«4a2 by a2. Ans. a«-2_a'« ~^-\-l. 

11. a252— a?>2 -a25 f ab by ab. 



12. a;»+2— »»+3-{-x» +4 by x« . Aas. x^—a^+x*. 

13. a»—a»f-\-a^hya^. Ans. a»-*-a»»-2-fl. 

14. a(a; — y)-\-h{x—y)-^c(x—y') by (a; — ^). Ans. a+6-f c. 

15. 77(a;+2/)+66(x+2^)-55(«+2/) by llQx+y). Ans. 
7+6—6=8. 

It sometimes happens that the exponents in the di- 
Tisop are numerically larger than those in the dividend. 
In such cases the exponents of the quotient will have 
negative signs. 

Example: 2^a^h^-^^a^=6a-^b-^. 

If the exponents in either term are literal, the dif- 
ference wiU be indicated by the minus placed between 
the exponents of the dividend and divisor, that of the 
dividend being always placed J&rst, thus: 

12x^6afi=^2x*-^==2x-^] 15a««H-5a« =3a'«-» 

EXERCISES. 

1. Divide —256a*b^c^d^ by IGa^bcK Ans. —16ah^cd\ 

2. Divide Gidb^d^ by 16a« b^ c« . Ans. 4a^-«63-«c2-«, 
As is the case in arithmetic, any algebraic quantity 

may be divided by a similar larger one by writing the^ 
terms in form of a fraction, which may be susceptible of 
reduction. The value of the fraction will be the value of 

the quotient. 

2 

1. Divide 6a by Sabc. Ans. rr- 

2. Divide 6x^y^ by 2ix*yK Ans. ^^ 

6 

3. 72a3c262 by 12a^c^b^d. Ans. ^^25^ 

Prom the processes of division we obtain this principle 
—the Reciprocal of any quantity is equal to 1 divided by 
that quantity expressed in a fractional form; thus ^ is the 

reciprocal of 4 ; —2 is the reciprocal of o^. Hence in trans- 



AlyGBBRA. 

forming fractions any term may be changed from tlie 

numerator to the denominator— or vice versa— by 

. , 2a263 

simply changing the sign of its exponent, thus — g— 

263 
may be changed into g— 3- This is sometimes a convenient 

mode of adding or subtracting fractions. It may be ex- 

a2 1 a2 1 

plained thus: "^="^'~^4 =a^—^=a—^; hence —y =a— 2. 

Another principle obtained from division is that any 
quantity whose exponent is zero is equal to 1 and may be 
used or omitted from, operations as convenience demands — 
4a35 H- 2a3= 2a3-3b = 2a^b = 26. 

For young pupils this is illustrated thus: ^ 

a^ -i- a^ = a^ 
a^ -i- a^ = a^ 
a^ -^ a^ = a° 
and a' -J- a^ = 1, hence a" = 1. 

CASE 3.— DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS BY POLYNOMIALS. 

Rule: Place the di^dsor at the right of the dividend 
arranging both with reference to the highest power of the 
same letter. [Use this division character ( \ ') as a 
separatrix]. Divide the first term of the dividend by the 
first term of the divisor for the first term of the quotient 
which is to be placed under the divisor for convenience 
in proving. Multiply the divisor by the term of the quo- 
tient last obtained, subtract the product from the dividend 
and proceed with the remainder as a new dividend — as in 
arithmetic. If there is a remainder after all the terms of 
the dividend have been brought down, place it over the 
divisor and annex- it to the quotient. 

Verification: Multiply the divisor and quotient; the 
the product must equal the dividend. 



*^,5J 



^5J 



ai,g:^bra. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Divide 10a*— ^Sa% -\-51a^b^+4:ab^—15h* by - 5a2+4a5 

+352. 

Model operation: 

DIVIDEND. DIVISOR. 

10a* — 48a3b +51a^h'^-{-'iab^—15b* |— 5a2+4ab+3b2 
10a* — 8a^b-6a%^ —2a^-\-8ab-5h^ 

— 40a354-57a252+4ab3 quotient. 

—4:0a^b+d2a%^-\-24:ab^ 

' 25a262_20a53— 155* 

250252— 20ab3—15b4 

2. Divide a^—3a^y-\- Say^ -y^ by ay. Ans. a^ - 2ay-\-yK 

3. Divide 24a25— 12a352c— 6a5 by — 6a5. Ans. — ia 

+2a25c+l. 

4. Dividea^— 5a4x+10aSx2— 10a2x3-t-5aa;*-a^ by a2— 2ax 
-\-x". Ans. a3— 3a2x+3aaj2— ics. 

5. Divide x*—y* by a;— 2/. Ans. a^+xy^+x^y+y^ 

6. Divide x*+x22/24-2/* by x^—xy-^y^. 

7. Divide 0^—54 by a^ f a254-a52-t-53. Ans. a—b. 

8. Divide 6x6 _ dx^y^—GxY+^^V^ +• 15x«y^—9xY + 152/« 
+10x22/5 by 3x3+32/2+2x22/2. 

9. Divide x^+S2y5 by x-\-2y. 
10. Divide l+2a by 1— a— a2. 

FOKMULAB. 

Formulae are brief algebraic expressions of general 
principles. We give those deduced from operations in 
multiplication and division. The use of formulae will be 
advantageous in saving time and labor by abbreviating 
operations in factoring, in fractions and in more advanced 
applications of algebra. Students should make it a point 
to know these formulae as thoroughly as they do the al- 
phabet. 



Formula 1. The square of the sum of two quantities 
equals the sum of the squares of the two quantities plus 
twice the product of the quantities. Ex: (a-{-by=a^-\- 
2a6-f 62j (m+n)2=m2-f2m7i+n2. 

2. The square of the difference of two quantities 
equals the sum of the squares of the two quantities minus 
twice the product of the two quantities. Ex : {a~b )^=a^ 
— 2ab+52; (m—ny=m^~2mn-^nK 

3. The product of the sum of two quantities multi- 
plied by their difference equals the difference of their 
squares. Ex: (a— 6) (a-\-h)=a^—b^'j (m — w) (m-{-n)= 

4. The difference of like even powers of two quan- 
tities is divisible by the sum and also by the dii^erence 
of the roots. Ex: {a^—W)-T-(a-^h)=a — 6; {m^—n^)-T-m-{-n= 

5. The sum of the cubes of two quantities can be 
divided by the sum of the roots, and the quotent is the 
sum of the squares of the quantities minus their pro- 
duct. Ex. (a3-|-68)H-(a+6)=a2— a54-62. 

6. The difference of the cubes of two quantities is 
divisible by the difference of the roots, and the quotient 
is the sum of the squares of the quantities plus their pro- 
duct. Ex: (aS— 3)-5-(a— 6)=a2-f-a5+62. 

The square of any polynomial equals the square of 
each term and twice the product of each term by all 
the terms succeeding it, with proper signs prefixed to 
each term in the product. 

EXAMPLES mTOEE THE FORMULAE. 

1. Square 2a+3c and 2a— 3c. 

2. Square 4x2 -f ^y^ and 4x^—Sy^. 

3. Square xf»-\-y» . Ans. x^»i-]-2x"fy» -{-y^" . 

4. Multiply 2x-\-3y by 2x—3y. Ans. 4x^—0y^. 



ai,g:^bra. 

5. {x*—y*) (x*-\-y^)=whsit'f Ans. x^—y\ 

6. {x»i-\-yn ) (xm — yn ) = ? Ans. x^^n — y'^» • 

7. Square (a+&-f-c). Ans. a2+2a&+2ac+b2-f-26c+c>. 

8. Square 2x — 3t/4-2c . 

9. ( x^ -{.y5)^(x-\-y ) == what? 

10. {x» — 2/«)-5-(x+2/). Ans. x»-^ — xf^-^y -^ x»-^^ ~x»*y^, 
etc. 

The product of any two binomials may also be given 
by inspection. 

Thus, (a;+7) {x+S)=x (a;+3)+7 (ix-{-S')=x^-}-Sx-{-7x+21 
=a;2-|-10ic+21. 

Again, ( x—7) ( x—3 )=x (a;— 3)— 7 ( x—S ) = x^~dx—7x-{- 
21=a;2— lto+21. 

Also,(x+7)(a;— 3)=a; {x—S)-\-7{x—3)=x^—Sx-{-7x—21=x^ 
4-4a;— 21. 

And, (95— 7) {a;+3)=x (a;-|-3)— 7 (x+3)=x2-f3x— 7a;— 21= 
a;2 — 4a;— 21. 

It will be noted that there are three terms in each of 
the above results; that the first term of each of these re- 
sults is the product of the first terms of multiplier and 
multiplicand; the last term of the result in each case is the 
product of the second terms of multipher and multiplicand; 
and that the middle term of each result has for its co- 
efficient the algebraic sum of the second terms of the mul- 
tipHer and multiplicand. 

Solve by inspection the following, using the method of 
reasoning as given in the first four: 

1. Multiply a;+3 by a;+4. 

3+4=7; 3X4=12. 
Therefore, (x+3) (x+4)=a;2-f-7a;-hl2. 

2. Multiply x-\-6 by x— 4. 

(+6)+(-4)=+2; (+6)X(-4)=-24. 
Therefore, (x+6) (x— 4)=x2 4-2x— 24. 

8 



ai;g:ebra. 

3. Multiply x+4b by cc— 35. 

{+46)+{-35)= +5;(+4b)X(-36)= -125^ 
Hence, {x+4b) {x—Sb)=x^-^bx~12b^, 

4. Multiply a2 -|-3 ( m-^n ) by a' +2( m-fn). 

3(m-{-n)+2 (m-fn)=6(m+n); 
3( m+n )X2{ m+n )=6(m-}-n)2. 

Hence, |a'-f3(m-f«)|a2e2+2 (m4-n)=a*+5a'(m4-n) 

-}-6(m+n)2. 

Find in like manner the product of the following: 
6. (a;+9) (x+S). Ans. a;2+12x+27. 

6. {0D—3){x+7). Ans. a;2+4x— 21. 

7. (9-fx) (7+x). Ans. 63-f-16a;H-x2. 

8. (aj— 7) (a;+10). Ans. a;2-f3x— 70. 

9. (X— 10) (x+9). Ans. x2— X— 90. * 

10. (x+2a) (x-i-3a). Ans. x2-f-5ax+6a» 

11. ( X— 12) (x— 3). Ans. x^— 15x-f 36. 

12. (a-\-b) (a+26). Ans. a'+3ab+2b^, 

13. (X— 3a) (x4-4a). 

14. (x»-f3) (x24-7). 

15. (3fi-\-a) (x3— 3a). 

16. (a 35){a-66). 

17. (x+a) (x+6). 

18. (x— a) (X— 6). 

19. (a+26) (a— 76). 

20. {3x— 22/) (2x—7y). 

It has been shown that the difference of the squares of 
two quantities is divisible by the sum of the quantities, 

and that the quotient is the difference of the quantities. 

a2— 62 , 

Thus, — —r- =a— 6. 
' a+6 

Also, the difference of the squares of two quantities is 

divisble be the difference of the quantities and the quotient 

is the sum of the quantities. 

9 



aI/G:^bra. 



Q,2 52 

Thus, i- =a+5. 

Write by inspection the quotient of the following: 

1. ^!lZI? Ans. a+S. 
a— 3 

2. in^^ Ans. 2— a. 

24-a 

3. 1?=^ Ans. 4+62 

4—62 ^ 

4. ^'-^^ Ans.a;+6. 

ic— 6 

5. ^^'-^^' Ans.2a-36. 

2a+36 

6. Q^^-^^^^ Ans.3a+46. 

3a— 46 

7 361/^—1622 

62/2+42; 
g a262c2— a;2 

a6c+x 
« 9aw— 1668 



3a5— 464 



10. ^'^'-^'! Ans. a263+2/B. 
(^253 — 2/8 

11. a^-(m+n)2 ^^^^ ^_^^_^^^ 

a — (m+7i) 

12. ^^+^)'-^' Ans.a+6-c. 

(a+6)+c 

We have learned that the sum of the cubes of two 
quantities is divisible by the sum of the quantities, and 
that the quotient is the sum of the squares of the quantities 
minus their product. 

Also, that if the difference of the cubes of two quan- 
tities be divided by the difference of the quantities the 
quotient is the sum of the squares of the quantities in- 
creased by their product. 

10 



Write the quotients of the following by inspection: 

1. ?L±^ Ans.a^-ab^b\ 

a-tb 

2. ^LH^ Ans. a2H-a&+62. 

a — b 

3. ^—^ Ans. l+a+a2. 
1 — a 

4. y^^ Ans. 1— w+w*. 
1+2/ 

6. ?y::^' Ans. 9— 3a5+a2Z>3. 
3H-a5 

6. ?Z^L±5! Ans. 9a4— 3a25H&*. 

7. ^^^^—^ Ans. a25Ha&c+c2. ^ 

ab—c • 

g l+27a3 
l4-3a 

0,356 — YTl^ 



9. 

10. 



ab^ — m 
64-4- gs 
4+a 



11. ^!L±?i?_ Ans. a4-7a2f49. 

12. 8«'3-729&3 ^^^^ 4a24-18a6+815». 

2a— 95. 

PRINCIPLES. 

1. The sum of any two odd powers of the same de- 
gree is divisible by the sum of the quantities. As, a^-\-b^ 
is divisible by a-\-b. 

2. The difference of two odd powers of the same 
degree is divisible by the difference of the quantities. 
As, a^ — b^ is divisible by a—b. 

3. The difference of two even powers of the same de- 
gree is divisible by either the sum or the difference of the 
quantities. As, a* — b* is divisible by both a — 6 and a+6. 

11 



1. If we divide m^-\-n^ by m+n tte quotient will be 
m* — m'w -j-m^n* — mn^-f-n*. 

2. Dividing m* — n* by m — n. we have for the quotient 

3. Dividing m^ — n* by m-j-n, we have m^— m^w-fmn* — »' 
for the quotient. 

4. Dividing m* — n* by m— w, we have for a quotient 

Please note that in the above examples the terms of 
the quotient are all positive when the divisor is the differ- 
ence of the quantities and alternately positive and nega- 
tive when the divisor is the isum of the two quantities; 
also that the exponent of the first letter regularly de- 
creases by 1 in the quotient while that of the following 
letter increases by 1. 

Find by inspection the quotient of the following: 

jp6 — 2^6 

356 yS 

2. , Ans. «* — x*y-]-x^^ — x^y^-{-xy* — y^, 

a«— 1 

3. -—1 Ans. a«+a<+a34-a2+a+l. 

a«— 1 

4. -^TiT Ans. a**— a*+a^— a^-fo— 1. 

a*— 625 
5- a— 5 ^^^' aH5a24-25a+125. 

a«-f32 
®' a-4-2 ^^^' «*— 2cfc^+4a^— 8a-hl6. 

a«— 32 m«+»i« x''—y^ 

rr Q ! 11 ^_ 

'• a— 2 ^' m+n ^^' x—y 

12 



AXIOMS. 

An axiom is a self-evident truth. Of tlie fourteen in 
mathematics the following are the most frequently used: 

1. If equals be added to, or subtracted from equals, the 
sum or difference will be equal. ( Transposition and Elimi- 
nation of terms in Equations depend upon this Axiom. ) 

2. If equals be multiplied or divided by equals, the 
product, or quotient, wiU be equal. 

Transformation of fractions and Elimination of Equa- 
tions are governed by this axiom. 

FACTORING. 

Factoring is the process of separating a quantity into 
its factors, and is the converse of multiphcation. Factor- 
ing is a sliort mode of performing division in certain 
classes of quantities by inspection. 

A Prime Factor is always a prime quantity. 

A Composite Factor is a composite quantity which 
is separable into simple prime factors. 

CASE 1. 

To factor a monomial. 

Rule: 1. Resolve the coefficient into its prime fac- 
tors. 

2. Separate the literal quantities into their prime fac- 
tors by writing each as many times as the exponents indi- 
cate. 

Note.— In monomials each letter is a factor. 
EXAMPLES. 

Find the prime factors of: 

1. 12a^b^c. Ans. 2X2X3aa55&c. 

2. 8a252; c^bV; 24a5c3. 

3. 35a^bc*d', ISSa^a^t/^ 

CASE 2. 

To form the monomial and polynomial factors of a 
polynomial. 

13 



Rule: Divide the polynomial by the greatest factor 
common to all the terms. This divisor and the quotient 
will be the prime factors sought. 

EXAMPLES. 

Factor. 

1. x-\-xy-\-xz, Ans. x{l-\-y-\-z). 

2. 6a262-l-2a35. Ans. 2a26(35+a). 

3. 452c2— 16abc+12a263c. 

4. 9dmn—18dm-{-15dn. Ans. 3d( 3mn— 6m+6?i). 

5. Ga^b— 9ab2-fl5a2fe2_21abm. Ans. Zab(2a—db-\-5ab 
— 7m). 

7. 15+10a2b+25m— 5d. 

8. 27b2x2— 5453x32/+816%22/2. 

9. 29aa;2— 58a2x+87a%3. Ans. 2dax{x—2a-\-Sa^x^), 
Sometimes terms can be so grouped as to show a com- 
mon binomial or trinomial factor. For example, ax-\:ay-\-bx 
-^by^iax+ay)-\-ibx-\-by')=a{x f 2/) + 6(a;+2/)=(a+b) (x+y). 

In the expression a(x-\-y) +b(ix-\-y) above, (x+y ) is seen 
to be a common factor. Dividing by x-\-y we obtain the 
other factor, a+5. 

EXERCISE. 

In the same way resolve into factors : 

1. ay-by-\-az—bz. Ans. {a—b)(y^z), 

2. ax— bx— ay -{-by. Ans. (a— 6) {x—y). 

3. m^-\-mn—bm — bn. 

4. ab— 36c— 2ac+6c2. 

5. ab+ac+bd -fed. 

6. xy+xz-my—mz. 

7. mn-|-2n — 2m — 4. 

8. ax-\-bx—ac — be. 

9. a^+a—a^b—b. 

10. 3ab— 3ac— 2b+2c. Ans. {b—c) (3a— 2). 

14 



ai<g:e;bra. 

CASE 3. . 

To find the two equal factors of a trimonial when 
the trimonial is a perfect square : 

Rule: — Connect the square roots of the perfect 
squares by the sign of the middle term. This will produce 
one of the equal factors. 

EXAMPLES. 

Find equal factors of the trinomials 

1. a2f2ab— 52. Ans. (a+5)(a4-b). 

2. a2— 2a6+52. Ans. (a— 6) (a— 6). 

3. 4a2-4a5+62. Ans. (2a -b) (2a— 6). 

4. 4+16a+16a2. Ans. (2+4a)(2-|-4a). 

5. x^+l— 2x2. Ans. (1— x2) (1— a;2). ^ 

6. — 14x3+49+a;6. 

7. 16x2/3+16x22/2-1-42/*. 

8. x2+4x(x+2/)+{2(x+2/) }'• 

9. 4x2+9(x-2/)2+12x(x— 2/). Ans. 2x+3 (x— 2/) (2x f 3) 

(a^2/). 

10. x2-f225-30x. 

CASE 4. 

To factor the difference of two squares. 
Rule:— Take the sum of the square roots of the two 
terms as one factor, and their difference as the other. 

EXAMPLES. 

Separate into two binominal factors : 

1. a2— 62; 4x2—42/2. Ans. (a+5)(a-b);{2x+22/)(2x— 22/). 

2. 4c2— 52; 9b^c'^—81a^c^. Ans. (2c— 5) (2c-H5); {35c 
— 9ac)(35c+9ac). 

3. 9a2— 2562; a^—b^ 

4. 16-25a2; x^—yK 

The difference of two cubes will be factored by 
Formula 6. 

15 



EXAMPLES. 

Find the factors of 

1. 8a3— 63; 27aj3— 27. Ans. (2a— 6)(2a— 5)(4a2-|-2a&+52). 

2. a;3— 642/3. Ans. {x--^y)ix^-\-4xy-\-16y^). 
Factor by Formula 5 

1. 8a3+863j 27x3+642/3. 

2. 63a863c3-|.i25c3d3. Ans. (4abc+5cd) (16a%^c^—20abc^d 
+25c2d2). 

If the binomial (a;+4) be multiplied by the binomial 
(a;4-5), the product, aj2_|_9a;_j_20, is called a Quadratic Tri- 
nomial. 

To separate a quadratic trinomial into two unequal 
factors we use the following: 

Rule: — ^For the first term of each factor take the 
square root of that term of the trinomial which is a perfect 
square, and for the second term such numbers as added 
will make the coefficient of the second term of the tri- 
nomial, and which, if multipHed, will produce the third 
term of the trinomial. Under this Eule, factor the follow- 
ing examples : 

1. ic2-4a;— 21. Ans. (x— 7)(x+3). 

2. a;24-12x+32. Ans. (a;-f8)(a;+4). 

3. 2/2-52/— 36. 

4. x2— 12a; 64. 

5. x^y^-{-7xy^-\-10yK 

6. x22/2— 3x2/2— 102/2. 

7. a2+a6+i62. ^ns. (a+^&)(a+|&). 

4 8 ^ ^ 2^^ 4 

9. c2— 10cdi+25d2. 

10. 16m2-f8m?i+n2. 

11. 1— 20a-f-100c2. 

12. a«— 34a3+289. Ans. (a3— 17)(a3— 17). 

16 



AI^GEBRA. 

13. (a+&)2— 4c (a+6) +4c2. 

14. (a;+2/)2+10(x+2/)+25. Ana. (a;+2/4-5)(x+i/4-6). 

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 

Factor the following : 

1. a;^ — y^. 

2. x*—l. Ans. (x2+l)(x— l)(a;+l). 

3. a6+32. 

4. 3a2— 9a3. Ans. 3a2(l— 3a). 

5. a^+aj2-(-3x+3. Ans. (x+l)(a;2-j-3). 

6. a2— 16a -1-64. 

7. a4-a26+b2. 

8. 36a;i<'— 16a8a;8. 

9. (a -by — (m-n)2. Ans. (a — b+m — n) (a—b — m-\-n). 
10. a;2+lla;+18. Ans. (a;+2){x+9). 

COMMON DIVISORS. 

A common divisor of several quantities is an exact 
divisor of each of them; hence every prime factor^ com- 
mon to these quantities is a connnon divisor, not only of 
the quantities, but also of their sum. 

The Greatest Common Divisor, (G. C. D.) which is also 
called the Highest Common Divisor, { H. C. D. ) and High- 
est Common Factor, ( H. C. F. )— is the product of all the 
common prime factors. Thus, 6a^ is the H. C. F. of 6a^, 
12a* and ISa'^. 

To find the H. C. F. of several algebraic quantities. 

Rule:— Find the prime factors of all the quantities: 

Find the product of all the common factors taking 
each factor the least number of times it occurs in any of 
the expressions. The product will be the H. C. F. 

1. Find the H. C. F. of IGa^b^ and 24.a^b\ 

16a252=2X2X2X2XaaX&& ; 

24a363=2X2X2X3X«aaX&b5. 

Hence the H. C. F.=2X2x2XaaX65=8a262. 

17 






2. Find the H. 0. F. of a^—h^ and a^-\-2ab+b\ 
a2— 62=(a+6) {ab—); 
a2+2ab+62=(a+6) (a+6). 
Hence the H. C. F.=a+5. 

EXAMPLES. 

Find the H. 0. F. of 

1. a^x^ — 4aiB-f-4, and ax— 2. Ans. ax— 2. 

2. 3a^c—9a^c—lSa^xy and b^c—'Sbc^—Gbcxy. Ans. 6— 3c 
— 6x2/. 

3. 3x2— 6x, 2x3—4x2 and x^y—2xy. Ans. x(a;— 2). 

4. x24-5x+6, x2+7x+10, and x2+12x-|-20. Ans. x+2. 

5. a2— 2a-f 1 and a2— 1. Ans. a— 1. 

6. a3— 63 and a2— 2a5+62. Ans. a—b. 

7. a^ — b^ and a^ — 53, 

8. a2(a— 3 )2 and a2— 3a. 

9. a2— 3a— 54; a2— a— 42 and a2— 2a— 48. 
10. 12(x+2/ )2 and 9(x+i/)3. Ans. 3(x4-2/)2. 

Deductions.— A divisor of a quantity is a divisor of its 
multiples. 

A divisor of two or more quantities will divide the sum 
or difference of any two of them. 

The H. C. F. of two or more quantities will not be 
changed by multiplying or dividing any of them by quan- 
tities which are not common factors of the others. 

The H. C. F. of several quantities may be found as in 
arithmetic by finding that of any two, and then the H. C. 
F. of this result and a third quantity, and so on. 

LEAST COMMON MULTIPLE. 

A multiple of a quantity is one which exactly contains it. 
A common multiple of several quantities is one which 
can be exactly divided by each of them. 

18 



aIvG:i^bra. 



A Least Common Multiple is the least quantity divsi- 
ble by two or more quantities. It must contain every 
prime factor in all the quantities; and it must contain 
every factor as often as it enters into the composition of 
any of the numbers. 




19 



COPYRIGHT 

QUINCY BUSINESS COLLEGE. 

1902. 




BOTANY. 

(THIRD PAPER.) 
LEAVES [CONTINUED]. 

A complete leaf consists of three parts: 

1. liamina, or blade. 

2. Petiole, or leaf stalk. 

3. Stipules, two small blade -like organs situated at 
the base of the petiole, as in the Red Clover. 

Some of these parts, however, may be wanting, most 
frequently the stipules, as they are of the least use. Such 
a leaf is said to be exstipiilate. 

A leaf which has a petiole is known as a p etiolate 
leaf. If the petiole should be wanting, the lamina arising 
directly from the stem, it then is a sessile leaf. 

Several distinct forms of sessile leaves occur; they may 
be: 

1. Clasping", the base 6f the leaf embracing the stem. 

2. Decurrent, leaf sessile, with its margins adherent 
down the sides of the stem. Ex. Mullein. 

3. Perfoliate, the base surrounding the stem so that 
the edges meet on the opposite side, the stem appearing to 
perforate the base. Ex. Oakesia. 

4. Connate or Connate-Perf oliate. In this form 
the bases of two opposite leaves grow together so as to 
appear as one leaf, with the stem passing through its 
center. Ex. Boneset. Honeysuckle. 

Sometimes the blade is wanting, or modified to serve 
some special purpose. In this event the stipules, or even 
the petiole, may become expanded so as to do duty as true 
leaves. These flattened petioles, or pliyllodia, as they 
are called, are weU shown in the Australian Acacia. 

1 



BOTANY. 

Again, all the parts of a perfect leaf may be present 
but so blended as to be distinguished with difficulty. In 
the Grasses, for instance, the stipules are united with the 
petiole, forming a sheath, which clasps the stem. The 
free points of the stipules will be found at the point where 
the sheath joins the blade, this projection being known as 
the ligule. 

The stipules, too, show various forms. They may co- 
here, making a membranous sheath for the stem which is 
called an ochrea. They may also be blended with the 
petiole, when they are said to be adnate, as in the Rose. 

Forms of tieaves.— Leaves may be either simple, 
consisting of a single blade, or compound, consisting of 
several blades or leaflets. Simple leaves may be, if broad- 
est in the middle : 

1. Filiform, threadhke. Ex. Asparagus. 

2. Acicular, slender, stiff-pointed. Ex. Pine. 

3. liinear, long, narrow, margins parallel. Ex. 
Grasses. 

4. Oblong, longer than wide, ends rounded. Ex. 
Milkweed. 

5. Elliptical, shaped like an elhpse. 

6. Oval, two or three times as long as broad, ends 
equally rounded. Ex. Apple. 

7. Orbicular, or rotund, when nearly circular. Ex. 
Mallow. 

If broadest near the base : 

1. Subulate, awl shaped. Ex. Jumper. 

2. Ensiform, sword- shaped. Ex. Iris. 

3. Lanceolate, much longer than broad and narrowed 
at ends; the apex being the more pointed. Ex. Willow. 

4. Ovate, when Kke a vertical median section of a 
hen's egg. Ex. Beech. 



BOTANY. 

5. Deltoid, when about as broad as long and narrowed 
to a point at the apex. Ex. White Birch. 

6. Tubular, hollow, like the leaves of an onion. 
If broadest near the apex : 

1. Oblanceolate, just the reverse oManceolate, i. e., 
having the narrower end at the hase. Ex. Rock Rose. 

2. Spatulate, rounded above, long and narrow be- 
low, like a druggist's spatula. Ex. Ox-eye Daisy. 

3. Obovate, this ^is ovate, but with the narrow end 
at the base. 

4. Cuneate, or wedge shape, broad above, tapering 
by straight lines to the base. Ex. A single leaflet ^f the 
Horse Chestnut. 

The apex may be : 

1. • Acuminate, having a narrow, tapering point. 

2. Acute, forming an acute angle. 

3. Obtuse, blunt or rounded. 

4. Truncate, appearing to be cut off nearly square. 
Ex. Tulip tree. 

5. Emarginate, notched at its summit. 

6. Retuse, broad with a wide, shallow indentation. 

7. Obcordate, inversely heart-shaped. 

8. Mucronate, terminating abruptly in a short, soft 
point. 

9. Cuspidate, same as mucronate, but the point is 
hard. 

10. Aristate, terminating in a bristle. 
The base may be: 

1. Cordate, or heart-shaped, when rounded and 
indented at the attachment to the petiole. 

2. Renif orm, or kidney-shaped, when leaf is much 
wider than long with a base broadly cordate. 



BOTANY. 

3. Auricular, or ear-shaped, there being a pair of 
small blunt projections at the base. 

4. Hastate, or halbert-shaped, having a pair of 
spreading, pointed lobes at the base. 

5. Saggitate, or arrow-shaped, two sharp lobes 
pointing downward. 

6. Peltate, or shield-shaped, the petiole attached 
near the center of under surface instead of to the edge. 

Marginal Indentations. — These may be compara- 
tively shallow, i. e.^ extending into the blade much less 
than half way from the sides to the mid-rib; or they may 
be deeper. A leaf whose margin is not indented in any 
way has an entire margin. 

The shallow forms are : 

1. Serrate, having sharp teeth pointing towards the 
apex. 

2. Dentate, with sharp teeth pointing outwards. 

3. Crenate or scalloped, having rounded teeth. 
Each of these three forms bear special names to indi- 
cate the degrees of fineness of the teeth. 

If very fine, the respective terms are: Serrulate, 
Denticulate and Crenulate. 

If they are double -toothed, i. e., one set of fine teeth on 
each larger one, they are: bi-serrate, toi-dentate, bi- 
er enate. 

4. Repand or undulate, when wavy. 

5. Spinose, spiny. Ex. Holly. 

6. Ciliate, beset with fine hairs. 

7. Fimbriate, fringed. 

8. Crispate, crisped or crinkled. 
The more deeply indented margins are : 

1. Incised, margin jagged or deeply cut. 

4 



BOTANY. 

2. Runcinate, in which the teeth are recurved, i. e., 
point towards the base. Ex. Dandelion. 

3. Lobed, the indentation extending nearly half way 
to the mid-rib or base, the segments being rounded. Ex. 
dak. 

4. Cleft, the incisions being still deeper and more 
acute. Ex. Poppy. 

5. Parted, the incisions extending nearly, but not 
quite, to the mid-rib. 

In these forms of leaves the following points should be 
noted : 

(a) Whether the leaf is pinnately or palmately veined. 

(b) The depth and shape of the incisions. ^ 

(c) The shape of the lobes. 

(d) The number of lobes. 

Should the venation be pinnate, this term precedes that 
which best describes the forms just given; as, pinnately - 
incised, pinnately-lobed, etc. If, however, the venation is 
palmate or radiate, the terms palmately -incised, etc., are 
apphed. 

The number of lobes is indicated by Latin prefixes, as 
bi-lobed, tri-lobed, multi-lobed, etc. 

Compound Leaves.— These are leaves in which the 
blade is subdivided into two or more leaflets. The leaflets 
may possess stalks of their own, which are called petio- 
liiles, or they may be sessile. In the latter case it often 
becomes difficult to say whether the specimen is a com- 
pound or a divided simple leaf. 

The plan of observing the venation as a means of indi- 
cating the different forms is also followed in the case of 
compound leaves, i. e., they may be pinnately compound , 
as in the Locust, or palmately compound, as in the 
Horse - chestnut. 



/':< 



BOTANY. 

Should the compound leaf be again compounded, i. e., 
its leaflets composed of compound leaves— then we are re- 
quired to state their numerical plan. 

Those compounded on the pinnate plan are : 

Bi-pinnate, tri-pinnate, multi-pinnate, and when 
they follow no special number, they are then known as 
pinnately-decompound leaves. 

Those which follow the palmate arrangement are said 
to be: 

1. Ternate, or palmately-trifoliate, when in 
threes; Ex. Clover. 

2. Quadrate, or P.-quadrif oliate, in fours. 

3. Quintate, or P. -quinquef oliate, in fives. Ex. 
Sweet Buckeye. 

Leaf Surface.— The following are the most impor- 
tant characteristics : 

1. Glabrous, when perfectly smooth. 

2. Punctate, dotted by pellucid spots. 

3. Rugose, wrinkled. 

4. Scabrous, harsh and rough to the touch. 

5. Hairy, when covered or partially covered with 
hairs : 

(a) Pubescent, hairs rather short and soft. 

(b) Lanuginous, covered with wooly hairs. 

(c) Tomentose, hairs matted or felted. 

(d) Villose, hairs long, soft, shaggy. 

(e) Pilose, hairs long, soft, straight. 

(f ) Floccose, when bearing tufted or cottony hairs. 

(g) Hispid, stiff hairs or bristles. 

6. Spinose, when provided with spines. 

7. Echinate, possessing barbed prickles. 

8. Glaucous, or Pruinose, when covered with a 
whitish bloom that may be wiped off. 



BOTANY. 

Texture of Leaves. — The descriptive terms which 
apply to this are the following: 

1. Membranous, when thin and pliable. 

2. Succulent, when thick and juicy. 

3. Scarious, dry, like bud scales. 

4. Coriaceous, thick and leathery. 

The coloring in leaves is sometimes modified; they are 
said to be : 

1. Herbaceous, when green, as in most plants. 

2. Petaloid, when colored hke the petals of a flower; 
or of some bright color other than green. 

Specially Modified Leaves.— Mention has already 
been made of the more common modifications o% leaves; 
it yet remains to describe briefly some of the more rare and 
wonderful forms. One of the distinctions between an an- 
imal and a plant usually given is that, while the animal can 
move about in quest of food, the plant must remain fixed 
and take what nourishment it can obtain from the soil and 
the air in which it is placed. In the case of following forms 
of modified leaves there is a suggestion of an instinct in the 
plant, so perfectly and accurately do the leaves serve as 
prehensile organs. In the Sundew their surfaces are pro- 
vided with sticky hairs on which any small insect ahghting 
becomes secured. These tentacle -like hairs are then folded 
inward by an incurhng movement of the leaf. Then a 
secretion, which is thrown out, dissolves the body of the 
insect and the nitrogenous elements are absorbed by the 
plant. 

In the Venus's fly-trap the leaf blade is constructed hke a 
steel trap, the two valves snapping together, and the mar- 
ginal bristles interlocking like the teeth of a trap. A few 
sensitive hairs, hke feelers, are developed on the leaf sur- 
face, and when one of these is touched by a flying or 



BOTANY. 

hovering insect, the trap snaps shut. After digestion is 
completed the trap opens again. 

In the Pitcher Plant the leaves are shaped like slender 
hollow cones, and rise in a tuft from the swampy ground. 
In the Southern Pitcher Plant the mouth of the urn is over- 
arched and shaded by a hood in which are translucent 
spots, hke small windows. Around the^^mouth of the urn 
are glands which secrete a sweet hquid, or nectar, and 
drops of this liquid form a trail down the outside of the urn. 
Inside, just below the rim is a glazed zone, so smooth that 
insects cannot walk upon it. Below the glazed zone is 
another zone thickly set with stiff downward-pointing 
hairs, and below this is the hquid in the bottom. If a fly is 
attracted by the nectar drops on the outside it naturally 
follows the trail up to the rim of the urn where the nectar 
is abundant. If it attempts to descend within the urn, it 
slips upon the glazed surface and falls into the water, and 
if it attempts to escape by crawling up the sides of the urn, 
the thicket of downward-pointing hairs prevents. If it 
seeks to fly away from the- rim, it flies toward the trans- 
lucent spots in the hood above, which look hke the way to 
escape as the direction of the entrance is in the shadow of 
the hood. Pounding against the hood the fly falls into the 
tube and is drowned in the water. In the Cahf ornia Pitcher 
Plant there is in addition to all of these contrivances a fish- 
tail appendage to the hood which hangs down as a lure to 
insects. The Austrahan Pitcher Plant has, instead of a 
hood, a hd which snaps shut. 

The various parts of a flower sepals, petals, stamens, 
and pistils are extremely modified forms of leaves which 
we shall study under the head of "the flower." 



BOTANY. 

THE FLOWER. 

A flower may be described as a set of leaves com- 
pactly placed upon a short stem or branch and especially 
modified for the purpose of reproduction. 

The fact that flower-buds occur on the stem in the 
same order as the leaf buds; that they can scarcely be dis- 
tinguished at this stage; that the gradual change may often 
be traced in the same plant from leaf to flower; and that 
some flowers will revert to typical leaves again — all point 
to the origin of their parts. 

Parts of the Flower. — A complete flower is made up 
of four sets of organs which are usually arranged in whorls, 
one within the other. The names of these whonJs are as 
follows : 

1. Calyx, the outer set, the individual leaves of which 
are called sepals. 

2. Corolla, the second whorl, the leaves of which are 
known as petals. 

3. Androecium, (Gr. Andros, a man), the single 
members of which are called stamens. 

4. Gynoecium, (Gr. Gyne, a woman), composed of 
pistils. 

The two outer whorls form the floral envelope; 
while, the two inner sets are the essential organs, i. e., 
essential to reproduction. All of these are borne upon a 
receptacle or torus, at the end of the floral stem. 

The Flower as a Whole. — When a flower has all 
four of the floral organs, it is said to be a complete flower; 
should any be wanting it is incomplete. If one whorl of 
the floral envelope is wanting, it is the Corolla, such a 
flower being described as apetalous. Should both the 
calyx and corolla be wanting it is said to be achlamydeous 
(Gr. without a garment), or naked. If both are present 



m 



BOTANY. 

then diclilamydeous describes the envelope. When both 
the essential organs are present the flower is perfect or a 
hermaplirodite; if one or both of these are wanting it is 
an imperfect one. Of this latter form there are several 
varieties as follows: 

1. Staminate, a male or sterile flower, i. e., having 
stamens but no pistils. 

2. Pistillate, female or fertile flowers, pistils being 
present but no stamens. 

3. Neutral, stamens and pistils both absent. This 
form may be found in the large showy flowers around the 
periphery of the cymes on the Wild Hydrangea. 

When a plant bears both staminate and pistillate flowers 
but no perfect flowers, it is said to be monoecious; Ex. 
Cucumber. When however the staminate and Pistillate 
flowers are borne upon different plants of the same species, 
such flowers are described as being dioecious; Ex. Sassa- 
fras, Willow. Should it happen that both perfect and 
imperfect flowers occur upon the same or on different 
plants in the same species, they then are called polyg- 
am^ous; Ex. Maple. 

If all the parts of each set of floral organs are alike in 
size and shape, the flower is known as regular; when 
unlike in this particular, it is irregular. i 

A flower whose parts in each set of organs are of the 
same number or a multiple of that number, is called a 
symmetrical flower; should this plan not be carried out 
it is unsymmetrical. 

When we wish to classify one of the wild-plants it be- 
comes of great importance to closely note the numerical 
plan of the parts of its flower. Cultivated house -plants, it 
will be found, seldom present typical flowers for study, as 
they usually show such deviations from the regular standard 

10 



BOTANl? . 

as to be often more confusing than helpful to the young 
botanist. As field work is begun and the material so col- 
lected is studied, it will be observed that throughout a wide 
range of different plants they appear so alike in the sym- 
metrical arrangement of the parts of their flowers as to 
suggest that they be placed together in the same natural or 
generic group. The number of these parts may be in- 
dicated by the following terms : 

1. Trimerous, when in threes. Ex. Endogens. 

2. Tetramerous, in fours. Ex. Mustards. 

3. Pentamerous, in fives. 

4. Hexamerous, when their number is six. 

The first three forms are the ones common ^jbo most 
plants. It is often rather difficult to trace the analogy in 
the forms and number of the parts of each whorl in certain 
plants, as these have been so modified by multiphcation, 
suppression or by the coalescing either of the whorls or of 
their separate parts, as to render their original plan quite 
obscure. 

The Receptacle. — The receptacle is the shortened 
floral axis upon which the floral organs are inserted. In 
shape it may be flat, concaved or even hollow, as in the 
Rose and Fig. When it lengthens, forming a stalk which 
uplifts the stamens or pistil, or both, it is called a stipe. 
When it is prolonged between the carpels and bearing 
them, it is a carpophore. This is always the case when 
there are numerous simple pistils because the receptacle 
must enlarge to give them room. The carpophore may be 
broad and flat, as in the Flowering Raspberry, elongated, 
as in the Blackberry, globular and fleshy, as in the Straw- 
berry, concave or urn-shaped, as in the Rose. An enlarged 
low receptacle is often called a disc. Should the axis in a 
cluster be shortened so as to appear hke the torus of a 

11 



single flower, as seen in the Clover, Lettuce and Dandelion, 
it then bears the name of a common receptacle. 

The Calyx. — The leaves of this whorl appear to be 
less differentiated from ordinary fohage leaves than those 
of any of the other sets. In a dichlamydeous flower 
they are usually f oliaceous in their color, although some- 
times petaloid; while in an apetalous flower their coloring 
is generally petaloid. 

As in the case of the whole flower, so each set compos- 
ing its floral envelope may be described as regular or 
irregular, depending on whether or not the sepals or 
petals are of the same size and shape. 

The sepals may remain separate and distinct from each 
other— when the calyx is said to be chorisepalous or 
polysepalous; or their margins may become united 
throughout all or part of their length— when the calyx is 
said to be gamosepalous. The parts of such a calyx are: 

1. Tube, formed of the united portions. 

2. ILiimb, the free or ununited border. 

3. Throat, the mouth of the tube. 

4. Pappus, the hairy, scaly limbs in the calyx of the 
Compositae; Ex. Thistledown. 

The gamosepalous calyx may present numerous dis- 
tinct forms in different plants and as the corolla also assumes 
these same forms, the technical terms which best indicate 
their shape will be found under the description of the 
corolla. 

The terms used in describing the duration of leaves also 
apply to the calyx, i. e., should the calyx remain until the 
corolla and stamens have fallen and sometimes until the 
fruit is ripe, it is a persistent calyx. Should the calyx 
fall when the other sets do, it is deciduous; if it drops off 
early when the flower first opens, as in the Poppy, it is 

12 



BOTANY. 

c aducous. In the Strawberry and certain other plants 
a whorl of bracts, which resembles a calyx, is placed just 
external to it. This formation bears the name of epicalyx. 

The Corolla. — This set is usually more or less attrac- 
tive in coloring. The purpose of this showy beauty and 
that of the special forms its petals sometimes assumes, will 
be taken up more fully under "Pollination and Fertihza- 
tion." 

The terms already given in describing the form of the 
calyx apply also to the corolla, i. e., it may be choripet- 
alous or polypetalous, when its petals are not united to 
each other; if they are united it is gamopetalous. In 
the latter form the terms tube, throat and limbs are also 
used in the same sense as in the calyx. 

In describing the individual petals of a polypetalous 
corolla, the following divisions are made : 

1. Lainlna, the upper expanded blade of the flower- 
leaf. 

2. Claw, or Unguis, the narrow or stalk-like base of 
the petal. 

3. Corona, the circlet or crown formed of small 
wing-like appendages sometimes found on the inner aspect 
of the corolla, at the junction of the lamina and the claw. 
Ex. Narcissus. In origin these correspond to the stipules 
of the foilage leaves. 

4. Spur, a tubular appendage which is prolonged 
downward from a petal— seen in the Columbine. 

The gamopetalous corolla may take on many dis- 
tinct forms; these bear the following descriptive names: 

1. Tubular, or tube -shaped. 

2. Rotate, or wheel- shaped; Ex. Potato. 

3. Campanulate, or bell-shaped; Ex. Harebell. 

4. Hypocraterlform, or salver-shaped; Ex. Phlox, 

13 



BOTANY. 

5. Urceolate, or urn- shaped; Ex. Wintergreen. 

6. Infundibiiliform, or funnel-shaped; Ex. Morn- 
ing Glory. 

7. Bilabiate, or Labiate, petals in fours, or fives 
with the two or three upper ones and the two lower ones 
jointed so as to form two lips. 

(a) Eingent, when the lips are spread apart; Ex. Sage. 

(b) Personate, lips thick and closed; Ex. Snapdragon. 

8. Llgulate, tubular below, upper part of corolla 
flattened, strap -shaped; Ex. the ray florets in the Dandelion. 

The compound flowers of the Compositae, such as the 
Dandelion, Sunflower, Thistle, Aster, Succory, etc., all con- 
sist of many flowers set upon a disk forming a head 
which is surrounded by an involucre. In this form the 
corollas of the central flowers are generally tubular while 
the marginal or ray flowers are ligulate. 

The different forms that the polypetalous corolla 
assumes also bear special names, as follows : 

1. Cruciform, parts four in number, these being 
arranged in the form of a cross; Ex. Cress, Mustards. 

2. Rosaceous, sepals and petals in fives, short 
clawed, or clawless and spreading; Ex. Apple, Wild Rose. 

3. Caryophyllaceous, in fives, claws long and con- 
cealed in a gamosepalous calyx; Ex. Clove, Pink. 

4. Papilionaceous, when the corolla is shaped as in 
the Pea. The name, which suggests that it is like a butter- 
fly, is a misnomer — as it resembles more closely a boat. 
It is composed of three parts : 

(a) Vexillum, Banner, or Standard, the superior 
spreading portion. 

( b ) Alae, or Wings, the two lateral petals. 

(c) Carina, or Keel, the two lower petals which are 
more or less joined. 

14 



BOTANY. 

5. Liliaceous, the parts of the calyx and corolla in 
threes; these are gradually spreading and much alike in 
form and color; Ex. Lily, Tulip. 

6. Orcliidaceous, both whorls of the floral envelope 
in threes and having one of its petals unlike the rest in 
shape, this one forming the lip; Ex. Orchids. In these 
flowers in which the calyx and corolla are alike in form 
and color, no attempt is made to distinguish the whorls by 
their names— the whole floral envelope being known as a 
perianth. 




IS 



BOTANY. 
OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

(THIRD PAPER.) 

1. Name the parts of a complete leaf and describe 
each. 

2. Describe the various kinds of sessile leaves. 

3. Describe three forms of leaves broadest in the 
middle; three forms broadest at the base; and three forms 
broadest at the apex. 

4. Describe the various forms the apex of a leaf may- 
take; the forms of the base. 

5. How are the margins of leaves described? 

6. What is a compound leaf? Mention some of the 
different kinds of compound leaves. 

7. Define the terms glabrous, scabrous, pubes- 
cent, tomentose, hispid, glaucous. 

8. Define the terms -succulent, coriaceous, pet- 
aloid. 

9. Describe the leaf of the Pitcher Plant and tell how 
it catches insects. 

10. What is a flower? Name the parts in order begin- 
ning at the outside. 

11. Define the terms complete, apetalous, perfect, 
staminate, pistillate, neutral, monoecious, di- 
oecious, polygamous, regular, symmetrical. 

12. What is the receptacle of a flower? When may it 
be called a stipe? A carpophore? 

13. Define the terms tube, limb, throat, gamo- 
sepalous. 

14. Define the terms persistent, deciduous, cadu- 
cous. What is an epicalyx? 

15. What is a gamopetalous corolla? A polypet- 
alous corolla? 

16. Define the terms claw, spur, lamina, corona. 

17. Describe the following forms of gamopetalous 
corolla: Tubular, rotate, campanulate, bilabiate, 
ligulate. 

18. What is a cruciform corolla? pescribe ?j 
papilionaceous corolla. 

16 



ZOOLOGY. 

(THIRD PAPER.) 
THE STARFISH. 

The starfishes belong to the branch Echinodermata 
(e-ki-no-der'-ma-ta) nieaning "hedgehog skin". This 
term is applied to the group because some of its members, 
the sea urchins, are supplied with many protective spines. 
Besides the starfishes the group includes the sea urchins, 
brittle- stars, crinoids, or sea-lilies, and sea-cucumbers. 
They all have aradial symmetry and for this reason it was 
formerly thought that they were closely related io the 
coelenterates, but careful study has shown that they are 
much more highly developed than this group and widely 
separated from it. 

External Structure.— In the common starfish there 
are five arms radiating from a common center. This char- 
acteristic is called radial symmetry. The lower surface 
of the body is called the oral (because the mouth is on this 
surface), while the upper is called the aboral surface. 
The central part of the body is called th^ disk. On the 
aboral surface of the disk is a small striated calcareous 
plate, the madreporite or madreporic plate. In the 
middle of this surface of the disk is a small pore, the anal 
opening". The entire aboral surface, d,s well as a great 
part of the oral surface is thickly studded with calcareous 
ossicles embedded in the body wall. These ossicles sup- 
port numerous short, stout spines arranged in irregular 
rows. Between the spines are many small pincer-like 
processes, the pedicellariae. Besides these latter proc- 
esses are numerous soft fringe »like projections of the inner 
body-lining, the respiratory caeca. ^'At the tip of 
each arm or ray is a small cluster of calcareous spines en- 



ZOOI.OGY. 

closing a small speck of red pigment, the eye-spot, or 
ocellus. 

On the oral surface in the center of the disk is the 
mouth. Radiating from the mouth are five grooves, one 
on each ray, the ambulacral grooves. In each groove 
are two double rows of soft tubular bodies with sucker-like 
tips, the tube-feet or ambulacra. 

Digestive System.— A very short oesophagus leads 
from the mouth directly into a large membranous pouch, 
the cardiac portion of the stomach. A short constric- 
tion separates this part from the pyloric portion which 
lies just above. From the pyloric portion large paired 
glandular appendages extend into each ray, the pyloric 
caeca. Their function is digestive, and oftentimes they 
are spoken of as digestive glands or "livers." The 
pyloric caeca, as well as the cardiac portion of the stom- 
ach, are held in place by the paired muscles which extend 
into each arm. There are two sets of these muscles, one 
set for thrusting the cardiac portion^ of the stomach out 
through the mouth, and another for pulling it back, the 
protractor muscles and the retractor muscles, re- 
spectively. The starfish obtains its food by thrusting the 
stomach out through the mouth, enclosing the food in the 
stomach thus everted, and then withdrawing stomach and 
food into the body. 

A short intestine leads from the pyloric portion of the 
stomach to the anal opening. Attached to one side of the 
intestine is a convoluted many-branched tube, the intes- 
tinal caecum. 

Circulatory System.— In the Echinodermata is a 
very characteristic system of organs found in no other 
branch, the water-vascular system. This is distinct 
from the blood circulation. Water is taken in through the 



ZOOLOGY. 

madreporite and passed downward through a calcareous 
canal to a circular tube surrounding the mouth. This 
canal is called the stone canal, because it is composed of 
rings of calcareous matter. It runs on one side of the 
ahmentary tract. The tube surrounding the mouth is 
called the circum-oral water-ring. Radiating from this 
ring are radial canals supplying each ray and connect- 
ing with the tube-feet. In connection with each tube-foot 
is a httle water-sac or ampulla projecting into the body 
cavity of the starfish. By a contraction of the dehcate 
muscles in the walls of the ampulla the fluid inside the sacs 
is compressed and forced into the tube -feet which are 
thereby extended. By the contraction of muscle^in the 
tube-feet they are again shortened while the small disk- 
hke, terminal sucker clings to some firm object. In this 
way the animal pulls itself along. 

The true blood fills the body-cavity and bathes all the 
organs and tissues. It is sometimes called the perivisceral 
fluid. It is aerated through the out-pocketings of the 
thin body- wall mentioned above. Surrounding the stone 
canal is a thin membranous tube and within it and by the 
side of the stone canal is a soft, tubular sac. The function 
of these organs is not certainly known. 

Nervous. ; System. — Around the mouth is a nerve- 
ring. Radiating from this are nerves which run beneath 
the radial canals of each arm. 

Keproductiye Organs, Life History and Habits. 
— Reproductive €?gans, ovaries in the female and testes in 
the male, occur one pair in each arm. They appear as 
many-lobed bodies lying in the body- cavity and attached 
to the body-walls at the angle between the arms. They 
discharge their contents through minute pores in the in- 
terradii. Thousands of eggs and sperm-cellsare extruded 



'■"W' 



ZOOLOGY. 

into the sea-water, where fertilization and development 
take place. The young in their early stages are very dif- 
ferent in appearance from the adults. At first they are 
bilaterally symmetrical, their radial symmetry being 
acquired later. The young swim freely in the open sea, 
feeding on microscopic organisms. The adults feed upon 
crabs, snails, and the Uke. They are very fond of oysters 
and create great havoc when once they gain access to an 
oyster bed. 

THE SEA-URCHIN. 

The sea-urchin is hemi- spherical in form and without 
arms, yet the radial symmetry is very apparent. The 
body- wall is composed of many calcareous plates more 
firmly united than in the starfish so that the body wall is 
rigid instead of being pliable as in the star fish. The 
mouth is on the oral surface and provided with a compU- 
cated masticatory apparatus having five pointed teeth. 
The whole structure is known as "Aristotle's lantern." 
The entire surface of the sea-urchin, except a small area 
around the month, is covered with stout spines articulated 
to the calcareous plates of the body-wall in such a way that 
they can be moved in various directions. It is this char- 
acteristic which gives to the whole group its name Echino- 
dermata (hedgehog-skin). The ambulacral grooves of the 
starfish are replaced by ambulacral areas converging to- 
ward the center of the aboral surface of the disk. The 
tube -feet are long and slender. Pigment cells are found at 
the tips of the ambulacral areas. The starfish is carniv- 
orous but the sea-urchin lives on vegetable matter consist- 
ing chiefly of green algae and the red sea-weeds. 
Correlated with this difference in food habits there are cer- 
tain differences in the structure of the internal organs. 
For example the alimentary canal in the sea-urchin winds 

4 



ZOOLOGY. 

about two and one-half turns within the body cavity before 
it reaches the anus. 

BRITTLE STARS. 

The brittle -stars, or serpent- stars, resemble the star- 
fishes in external appearance, that is, they are flat and 
composed of a central disk with radiating arms (always 
five in number, although each arm may be several times 
branched). The central disk is always sharply distin- 
guished from the arms, and the arms are usually slender 
and more or less cyUndrical. The distinguishing difference 
between the brittle -stars and the starfishes is that the body 
cavity and the stomach which extend out into the arms in 
the starfishes, are in the brittle -stars limited to tbn central 
disk or to the disk and the base of the arms. The tube- 
feet also have no suckers at the tips. 

SEA CUCUMBERS. 

The sea-cucumbers show at first glance little resem- 
blance to the other radiate animals. The body is an 
elongate, sub-cyhndrical sac, resembling a thick worm, or 
sausage, or cucumber in shape. At one end it bears a 
group of branched tentacles which are set in a ring around 
the mouth opening. The body-wall is muscular and 
leathery, but contains many small separated calcareous 
spicules. There are usually five longitudinal rows of tube- 
feet. In some species tube -feet are entirely wanting; in 
others they are scattered over the surface. 

Sea-cucumbers usually rest buried in the sand by day 
and feed by night. Some attain a large size, one from Cal- 
ifornia being three feet in length. The people of some 
nations use sea -cucumbers as food. They are called "tre- 
pang" in the orient. The trade of preparing the trepang 
is almost entirely in the hands of the Malays, and every 
year large fieets set sail from the Philippines to the south 
seas to catch sea -cucumbers. 



ZOOLOGY. 



FEATHER STARS. 

The feather -stars, or sea-Ulies, or crinoids, as they are 

variously called, differ from the other Echinoderms in hav- 

the mouth on the upper side of the disk, and in the fact 

that all of the species are fixed, either permanently or for 

a part of their hfe, being attached to rocks on the sea- 

bottom by a longer or shorter stalk which is composed of a 

series of rings or segments. (These segments are very 

common in the fossil form in our limestone rocks and are 
commonly known as "Indian beads". ) The central disk is 
small and the radiating arms are long, slender, and some- 
times repeatedly branched, and all the branches bear fine 
lateral projections called pinnulae. Most of the feather- 
stars live in deep water and are thus onjy seen after being 
dredged up. 

CLASSIFICATION OF ECHINODERMATA. 

Branches. I Class. Examples. 

Asteroidea Starfishes. 

(Star -shaped; a furrow 
along under side of the 
arms; body cavity ex- 
tending into the arms. ) 

Echinoldea Sea Urchins 

(Armless; with flatten- 
ed, globular or cake- 
shaped bodies.) 

-^ , . , , Orphiuroidea Serpent or 

Echmoder- / (Star-shaped, with un- brittle stars, 
mata. \ grooved arms; body basket stars 

(Radial structure ; \ cavity confined to disk. ) 
intestinal wall_^,^_ ., am 

distinct from body 1 ^S^^^^^^^^^^ft' V ^®k ^^^^^" 

wall; calcareous / ( Worm-hke with ten- bers. 
plates in the skin) / tacles around the mouth.) 

Crinoidea Sea Lilies or 

(Sessile, stalked forms Crinoids. 

with cup -shaped bodies 

and mouth on the upper 

side; arms much 

branched and with 

pinnulae, 

6 



ZOOLOGY. 

THE FRESH-WATER MUSSEL. 

The fresh water or river mussel lives commonly in 
streams, lakes or ponds, frequenting muddy or sandy bot- 
toms. They crawl slowly over the bottom by thrusting 
out and retracting the fleshy foot which extends between 
the two valves of the shell. The two valves are held to- 
gether along the upper, or dorsal surface by a horny 
structure, the hinge-ligament. Large conical projec- 
tions (the hinge-teetli) fitting into each other along the 
hinge-hne help to keep the two valves together. Near 
the hinge -line is a prominence (umbo) in each valve from 
which as a center extends a series of concentric lines of 
growth. The umbo is the oldest part of the valve^ Lining 
the valves is a soft membrane with a fringe along its outer 
border. A portion of this membrane hangs free from the 
shell and its Hne of attachment to the shell is called the 
pallial line. This membrane is a flap of the body-wall 
and is called the mantle. It aids in the functions of res- 
piration and nutrition. A large anterior and a posterior 
adductor muscle by their contraction serve to close the 
shell. When these muscles relax the elastic hinge -liga- 
ment causes the valves to spring apart again. 

The movements of the plough-shaped muscular foot 
are governed by retractor and protractor muscles 
attached to the valves near the attachments of the ad- 
ductor muscles. Hanging down on each side of the foot 
between the foot and the mantle are the gills, flattened, 
plate-hke structures composed of thin, ribbed, membran- 
ous folds. Just above the anteriorly projecting foot 
and beneath the anterior adductor muscle is the mouth 
Ifeading into the soft visceral mass of the body 
On each side of the mouth are two pairs a plate -like 
structure resembhng the gills but much smaller. These 



ZOOLOGY. 

are the labial palpi, and it is by their action that food 
particles which have been brought in with the water are 
conveyed to the mouth. At the posterior end of the 
animal the edges of the mantle are fringed and the op- 
posing parts so approximated as to form two apertures, 
the lower one of which is called the inhalent siphon be- 
cause the ciha of the fringes keep up an inflowing current 
of water into the cavity enclosed by the mantle (the 
mantle cavity). Food particles in the water are taken 
out as the water flows over and through the finely striated 
gills to a space above the two sets of gills on each side 
(the supra-branchial cavity. From this cavity the 
water flows backward and outward through the upper 
aperture (the exlialent siphon). 

Digestive System. — The food which has been re- 
moved from the water by the gills is passed forward by 
the action of the cilia on the gills and labial palpi to the 
mouth. The mouth leads by a short tube ( oesophagus 
or gullet) into a large cavity, the stomach, which is sur- 
rounded by a greenish mass, the digestive gland. From 
the stomach the intestine winds around through the foot 
and finally emerges on the dorsal side of the body, where 
it is called the rectum, and passes straight backward and 
opens into the exhalent siphon. 

Circulatory System.— The heart of the mussel 
consists of a sac ( the ventricle surrounding the rectum 
and a pair of thin-walled auricles on the right and left 
sides. The blood flows from the right and left gills 
through fine blood vessels, the efferent branchial 
veins to the right and left auricles, thence to the unpaired 
muscular ventricle from which it is forced anteriorly and 
posteriorly through two main arteries, the anterior and 
posterior aortas, to all parts of the body. ^After bath- 

8 



ZOOLOGY. 

ing the body tissues the blood is collected into a median 
longitudinal vein beneath the heart called the vena cava. 
From the vena cava the blood passes through the kidneys 
and gills to the heart. The mantle acts as an organ for the 
aeration of the blood, and the blood it receives or at least 
a part of it passes directly back to the heart without pass- 
ing through the gills or kidneys. 

Kidneys. — The kidneys, or nephridla consist of dark- 
colored paired structures beneath the heart. Each consists 
of a U-shaped tube, the lower portion with thick folded 
walls (the kidney proper), the upper, a thin- walled tube 
(the ureter). The kidneys open internally through a 
pair of reno-pericardiac openings into a space strround- 
ing the heart (the pericardium); the ureters communi- 
cate with the mantle -cavity by an opening on the side of 
the body beneath the gills. The kidneys are profusely 
suppKed with fine blood-vessels which carry off the waste 
matter from the blood. 

ISTervous System.— The nervous system consists of a 
pair of ganglia ( cerebro-pleural ganglia ) lying near the 
mouth connected with each other by a delicate commissure 
running over the gullet. From these ganglia two nerves 
(cerebro-visceral connectives ) run backward on each 
side of the foot close to the visceral mass to another pair 
of ganglia ( visceral ganglia) more or less united. These 
ganglia give off nerves to the mantle and gills. Still 
another pair of ganglia (the pedal ganglia) are found in 
the front part of the foot. These are connected to the 
cerebro-pleural ganglia by dehcate nerves. 

Life-History, Reproduction and Habits.— The re- 
productive organ or gonad consists of glandular tissue 
fllhng the cavity of the foot and surrounding the loops of 
the intestine. It has its exit beneath the gills on each side 



ZOOLOGY. 

of the foot. The sexes of the mussel are distinct, but the 
reproductive organs, ovaries and testes are very similar. 
The eggs (ova) of the female pass first into the supra- 
branchial chamber, where, after being fertilized, they drop 
into the outer pair of gill-chambers. These outer gills 
serve as brood-pouches and here it is that the embryonic 
stages are passed through. The embryo when ready to 
issue has a soft body enclosed in two triangular valves. 
At this stage it is called a gloeliidium. The glochidium 
on being discharged through the exhalent siphon of the 
parent falls to the bottom, where it remains for a time, 
when it attaches itself to some fish by the lower hook-like 
projections of the valves and leads a truly parasitic life for 
two months, after which it undergoes a metamorphosis 
and falls to the bottom again, there to begin an independ- 
ent existence. Mussels often congregate in favorite mud 
or sand banks. Their food consists primarily of small or- 
ganisms, both plants and animals, which are taken from 
the water entering the mantle cavity. 

OTHER MOLLUSOA. 

tamellibrancliiata.— The fresh-water mussel de- 
scribed above is a type of this class. All the members of 
the class have nearly symmetrical bodies, leaf -hke gills and 
shell composed of two valves. The edible clams of the sea- 
shore which figure so largely in the New England clam- 
bakes are found in every mud flat or sandy shore along the 
coasts of the eastern states. 

Even more widely known than the clams are the oysters 
(Ostrea Virginiana). This moUusk is carefully cultivated 
by man in many countries. Its two shell-valves are dis- 
similar, one valve being hollowed out to receive the body 
while the other is nearly flat. The oyster is attached to 
the sea bottom by the outside of the hollowed -out valve. 

10 



ZOOLOGY. 

When first hatched the young oyster swims freely by 
means of cilia; after a few days it attaches itself to some 
sohd object and grows truly oyster-like. Much care has 
to be taken in cultivating oysters to furnish proper con- 
ditions for growth and development. The young oysters 
when first attached are called ''spat"; when a little older 
this "spat" now called a "seed" may be transplanted to 
new beds, which are stocked in this way. In fact some 
beds have constantly to be thus restocked, the young 
oysters produced on them not finding good places to attach 
themselves, and so swimming away. Sometimes pieces of 
slate, pottery, etc., are strewed about the oyster beds to 
serve as "collectors", that is, as places of attacHment of 
the young oysters. The Baltimore oyster-beds on the 
Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries cover 3,000 acres, and 
produce an annual crop of 25,000,000 bushels. 

The "pearl-oyster" is not a true oyster, that is not a 
member of the family to which the edible oysters belong, 
but is a member of the same class. Mother-of-pearl is 
simply the layers of carbonate of lime so arranged that the 
edges of the successive layers produce many fine striae 
very close together. The beautiful iridescence of this 
inner shell-lining is caused by the complicated diffraction 
and reflection (interference effects) of the light by the fine 
striae and the translucent superposed thin plates of shell 
material. Pearls are simply isolated deposits of shell ma- 
terial Usually around some particle of foreign substance 
which has found lodging in the mantle-cavity. Sometimes 
small objects are purposely introduced into the shell in 
order to stimulate the formation of pearls. 

The ship-worm (Teredo) is an interesting member of 
this class of moUusks, because of its unusual habits, and 
strangely modified body form. The teredo is long and 

11 



ZOOLOGY. 

worm-like in general appearance, with a small bivalve 
shell at one end and two elongated siphons at the other. 
The young teredo is a free -swimming cihated embryo Uke 
the young of other bivalve moUusks, but it soon settles on 
a piece of submerged wood, usually the pile of a wharf, or 
the bottom of a ship, and burrows into the wood. As it 
grows it enlarges and deepens its tube-hke burrow, and 
Hues it with calcareous deposit. The burrow may be a foot 
long or longer, and when thousands of teredos attack a 
pile or the bottom of a ship, the wood soon becomes riddled 
with holes. These boring moUusks do great damage to 
wharves and ships. In Holland where they were first dis- 
covered they caused such injuries to the piles and other 
submerged wood which supported the dikes and sea-walls 
that they seriously threatened the safety of the country. 

Gastropoda. — The molluscs of this class have a head 
with feelers and eyes, an unpaired foot and a one-valved 
shell. They are often called Univalves to (distinguish 
them from the preceding class, the Bivalves. The shell 
when present is spiral in form, each turn of the spiral being 
a wliorl; the tip is the apex; the axis the columella; the 
opening at the base, the aperture; the outer edge of the 
aperture, the lip; the spiral groove between the whorls, 
the suture; the lines of growth are parallel to the hp. 
The foot is the soft part of the body which comes in con- 
tact with the object upon which the animal rests and 
enables the animal to crawl. The common pond- snail has 
two protrusible tentacles or feelers and two eyes at the 
base of the tentacles. The mouth is provided with a pecu- 
liar ribbon-like tongue (the radula) covered with fine 
teeth. The radula is drawn back and forth over a small 
protuberance in the mouth like a cord over a pulley and 
when pressed against an object acts like a rasp. It thus 

12 



ZOOLOGY. 

rasps off small particles of vegetable matter wMch serves 
the animal as food. 

The comm.on pond-snail, like its relative, the land- 
snail, breathes not by means of gills, as do most other 
molluscs, but by means of a so-called ''lung". This lung 
is a sac with an external opening on the right side of the 
body and with its inner surface richly furnished with fine 
blood-vessels. The exchange of gases between the blood 
and the outer air takes place through the thin-walled 
blood-vessels. Most snails which live in the water have to 
occasionally come to the surface to breathe. The lung -sac 
besides serving as a breathing organ, also enables the snail 
to rise or sink according as the animal varies the si* of the 
sac and consequently- the amount of air in it. 

Most land-snails are similar to the pond- snail except 
that they have two pairs of tentacles and the eyes are at 
thetips of the second pair. 

Slugs are found during the day concealed under boards 
or elsewhere; they are nocturnal in habit. There is no 
shell, only a fleshy mantle on the dorsal surface near the 
head. As it crawls about it leaves a streak of mucus be- 
hind it. 

All the Pulmonata (snails with lung-sacs) are herma- 
phroditic, each individual producing both sperm- and egg- 
cells. The eggs are laid in gelatinous transparent capsules, 
half an inch in length, flattened and linear or oblong in 
outline. 

There are many other snails in ponds which have gills 
but no lung- sac. These live at the bottom of the pond in 
the soft mud and feed upon animal instead of vegetable 
food. 

The shells of the various kinds of snails vary much. 
On many of the land- snails the spiral is not spire -shaped 

13 



ZOOLOGY. 

or conical, but flat. On some the whorls run from left to 
right (dextral) when the shell is looked at with the apex 
toward one, while in others the whorls run from right to 
left (sinistral). 

There are hosts of marine Gastropods which we can 
merely mention; the beautiful nudibranclis with shell 
and mantle both absent and with the gills arranged in 
plumes and tufts along the back; the limpets with low, 
broadly conical shells; the cowries or porcelain shells, 
with large body whorl and a very short flat spire, brightly 
colored having the appearance of being enameled; the 
oyster-drills with odd spiny shells which do much harm 
to the oyster beds by drilKng holes through the oyster 
shells and eating the soft parts within; the helmet shells 
from which shell cameos are cut, composed of layers of 
shell material of different colors. 

Cephalopoda.— The squids, cuttlefishes, octopi or 
"devil-fishes" and the Nautilus constitute this class of 
highly organized molluscs. They are all marine in habitat 
and all carnivorous. Most of them have no shell or where 
the shell is present it is internal in all but a few forms. 
The mouth is surrounded with tentacle -like arms or feet 
provided with sucking organs or suckers. These long, 
powerful, grasping, tentacular feet with the sucker and 
five hooks, are very effective means of securing prey and 
a pair of strong, sharp cutting mandibles or beaks at the en- 
trance of the mouth are equally effective in tearing to pieces. 
The eyes are almost as highly developed as those of the 
vertebrates. They are unusually large and staring and add 
much to the terrifying appearance of the "devil-fishes". 
Cephalopods have the power of quickly changing color 
because of the presence in the skin of many pigment- cells 
which can expand so as to touch each other, thus produc- 

14 



ZOOLOGY. 

ing a uniform tint over the whole body, or which can con- 
tract so as to destroy this uniformity of color. There are 
several sets of color- carrying cells or chromatophores, 
each set of a color different from the others. The purpose 
of this change of color is protective, the animal being able 
to make its color harmonize with its surroundings so that 
it becomes indistinguishable. The animals can swim rap- 
idly by projecting a stream of water from a siphon under 
the head the reaction causing the animal to shoot suddenly 
backward. 

The Cephalopods are divided into two groups; the 
Decapods with ten arms, and the Octopods with eight 
arms. The Decapods have elongate bodies containing a 
horny "pen" or calcareous "bone". This group includes 
the cuttlefishes and sepias from which are obtained sepia- 
ink and the cuttlefish bone used to feed canary biids. The 
ink is a secretion which the cuttlefish discharges when at- 
tacked to create a cloud in the water and thus escape un- 
perceived. The squids used as bait by fishermen belong to 
this same class. The two extra arms of Decapods differ 
from the others in being longer and slenderer and having 
suckers only on the distal extremities which are expanded 
as clubs. The Octapods have a short sac-hke body with 
neither external nor internal shell. The famous devil- 
fishes (Octopus) with strange and terrifying appearance 
and great size belong to this class. Octopi have been cap- 
tured with arms more than 30 feet in length. The giant 
squids (belonging to the Decapods) attain a greater size, 
however, some having a body -length of twenty feet and 
arhis thirty-five feet long. 

The beautiful paper sailor or argonaut, which secretes a 
thin shell to protect her eggs, is also a member of this 
group. In fine weather the argonauts sail in fleets on the 
surface of the ocean. 

The pearly nautilus is a Cephalopod with four gills 
instead of two as with the Decapods and Octopods. They 
live in rather shallow water usually creeping over the bot- 
tom feeding on small marine animals. They make a many- 
chambered spiral shell with its inner surface lined with 
beautiful pearly nacre. 

IS 



ZOOLOGY. 






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16 



ZOOLOGY. 
OUTL.INE QUIZZES. 

(THIRD PAPER.) 

1. How do the Echinoderms get their name? What 
groups of animals are included under this head? 

2. Describe the general appearance of the starfish. 

3. Locate the following organs and give their function : 
ocellus, madreporite, ambulacra, respiratory 
caeca. 

4. Describe the digestive system of the starfish. 

5. What is the water-vascular system of the star- 
fish; the perivisceral fluid? 

6. Describe the nervous system of the starfish. 

7. Compare the sea-urchin with the starfish. What 
is "Aristotle's Lantern?" % 

8. How do the Brittle -Stars differ from the ordinary 
starfish? 

9. What is the general form of the sea- cucumber? 
What characteristic throws them under the Echinoderms? 

10. Describe briefly the Sea-Lily. 

11. Classify the Echinoderms. 

12. Describe the shell of the fresh-water Mussel. 

13. How does the Mussel get its food? What organs 
are used for this purpose? 

14. Describe the circulatory system of the Mussel. 

15. Locate and give the function of the following 
organs: foot, siphons, palpi, mantle, adductor 
muscles, gills, gonad, kidneys. 

16. Give the Mfe-history of the Mussel. 

17. Name some molluscs closely related to the mussel. 
How are pearls formed? 

18. How do the Gastropods differ from the mussel? 
What animals belong to this group? 

19. What are the characteristics of the Cephalopods? 

20. Classify the MoUusca. 



17 



■"K.#!'>S 



;1 



PHYSICS. 

(THIRD PAPER.) 

Diffusion of Gases. — Gases mix in all proportions. 
When two gases are placed in contact they begin to diffuse 
into each other at once, the rate of diffusion being much 
more rapid than that of liquids. If an inverted bottle is filled 
with hydrogen, and after a few minutes a match is applied 
to it, a violent explosion results. This shows that the air, 
though much heavier than the hydrogen, has ascended into 
the bottle and mixed with it. 

Kinetic Theory of Gases.— A gas consists of free, 
elastic molecules, which are in constant and rapid laotion* 
On account of the nature of a gas, its molecules are not 
under the restraining influence of cohesion; they are con- 
stantly colhding with one another and with the sides of the 
vessel in which they are contained. If two gases are placed 
in a vessel, each gas will diffuse in the same manner, as if 
the other gas was not present. The molecules of the two 
gases encounter each other, however, and rebound along 
new paths. The pressure of a gas against the walls of the 
vessel in which it is contained is due to the blows struck by 
the molecules of the gas upon the walls. These blows are 
so numerous that each square inch of surface receives mil- 
lions of blows every second, thus maintaining a continuous 
and constant pressure. 

Air, being matter, is governed by the laws of motion 
common to all other forms. The momentum of air, the 
amount of force which it exerts upon opposing bodies, is 
found, as in solids, by multiplying weight by velocity. As 
we cannot estimate the weight, we are confined in esti- 
mating the momentum of winds, as hurricanes, etc., to the 



PHYSICS . 

relative velocities in deciding their effects. It is the mo- 
mentum of air which is the practical element in the use of 
windmills, pneumatic unloaders of cars, etc. 

A body having the same density as air, will remain in 
any position in the atmosphere in which it may be placed. 
A body having a greater density than air will sink, while 
one, the density of which is less than that of the atmos- 
phere, will rise until it reaches a point at which the density 
of the one equals that of the other, when the body will be- 
come stationary. A balloon will illustrate these three prin- 
ciples. 

The Thermometer is an instrument used for measur- 
ing the variation in the temperature of the atmosphere. Its 
construction is too famiMar to need any detailed descrip- 
tion. There are two forms of the instrument in use — ^the 
Fahrenheit, so named from its inventor, and the Centigrade, 
so called because it is divided into one hundred degrees be- 
tween the freezing and boihng points of water. 

In graduating the Fahrenheit thermometer, the bulb is 
plunged into a mass of melting ice or of freezing water, and 
allowed to remain for a few moments until the mercury in 
the tube becomes stationary, when the point at which it 
stands is marked and numbered 32. It is then held in the 
steam escaping from boihng water until the mercury ceases 
to rise. This point is also marked and numbered 212. The 
space intervening between these two marks, called, respec- 
tively, the freezing and the boihng points of water, is di- 
vided into 180 degrees. 

The Centigrade thermometer, being scientifically more 
correctly graduated than the Fahrenheit, is chiefly used by 
scientists; the Fahrenheit for general purposes. It will 
readily be seen that the zero of the Centigrade corresponds 
to the 32 degrees of Fahrenheit, and the 100 of Centigrade 

2 



PHYSICS . 

to the 212 of Fahrenheit, fchus making the 100 degrees Cen- 
tigrade mark the same difference of temperature as the 
212-32, or 180 F. The zero of Fahrenheit is an arbitrary- 
point, selected simply on the erroneous theory of its inven- 
tor, that below this point there could be no heat. 

Meteorology.— Closely connected with, and depend- 
ent upon the laws of Pneumatics, is that branch of Physics 
which treats of atmospheric phenomena, especially of those 
relating to atmospheric heat and moisture. 

Atmospheric heat is obtained from the heat of the 
sun's rays and by that radiated from the surface of the 
earth. The average temperature of the air during the day 
is found by recording observations, taken at regiil&,r inter- 
vals, and dividing their sum by the number of records. The 
mean annual temperature is found in the same manner. 

Moisture is absorbed by the air at all temperatures. The 
capacity for absorbing moisture and retaining it increases 
with the temperature. When air is saturated with mois- 
ture, any decrease in the temperature causes an increase in 
density and produces a discharge of moisture in the form of 
fog, dew, snow or rain. ( See another paragraph). 

The quantity of moisture contained in the atmosphere 
is measured by an instrument called the Hygrometer, 
(ugros— moist; metron measure). Many organic bodies, 
as hair, catgut, etc., have such a tendency to absorb mois- 
ture, that they may be used in the construction of rude hy- 
grometers. A piece of catgut may be suspended by a light 
weight from a nail, and its length, when perfectly dry, be 
marked zero on the wall. Upon being saturated with water, 
by suspending it in a jar of water placed under it, the length 
will be diminished, and the point at which the weight then 
stands may be marked "sat." or saturated. This will be an 
ef&cient instrument for domestic use. 



;-:.fcjf; 



PHYSICS . 

Practical use is made of the upward pressure of gases 
in the construction of gasometers. A gasometer consists 
essentially of a cylindrical reservoir suspended with its 
mouth downward and plunged to a great part of its depth 
in a tank containing water. The gas manufactured in the 
retorts, after being purified, is conveyed into the reservoir 
by pipes passing through the water and opening above its 
surface. The upward pressure of the hberated gas, due to 
its expansibihty, causes the reservoir to rise to a regulated 
height. By other pipes, also passing through the water, 
the stored gas is distributed to the service pipes. The use 
of the water is to prevent the diffusion of the gas into the 
external air. 

The Air Pump. — The air pump is an instrument for 
removing air from a closed space. It consists essentially 
of a metal cyhnder, called the barrel, fitted with a piston, at 
the lower end of which are two small tubes with valves, so 
arranged that air can enter through one and leave through 
the other. To remove the air from a given receiver, one of 
the short tubes is connected with the receiver and the pis- 
ton drawn up. Air rushes from the receiver into the bar- 
rel. The piston is now pushed down, the valve of the tube 
leading to the receiver closes, the valve of the other tube 
opens and the air contained in the barrel is forced into the 
atmosphere. At each complete stroke of the piston, air of 
less and less density is ejected into the atmosphere. It is 
evident that all of the air contained in the receiver cannot 
be removed, even supposing no leakage. At each stroke 
only a part of the air is removed, and the remainder is left 
in the receiver. Insufficiency of the air, when very rare to 
open the valves, leakage of the apparatus and other causes 
prevent the obtaining of a complete vacuum. If the ratio of 
the volume of the barrel to that of the receiver is known, it 



PHYSICS . 

is easy to compute theoretically the degree of exhaustion 
after any number of strokes have been made. The rate of 
exhaustion increases in a geometrical ratio. If the capac- 
ity of the barrel is Vio that of the receiver, after the piston 
is first raised, ^/lo of the quantity of original air remains, 
since Vio has been expelled. After the second stroke, ^Vioo 
of the original quantity remains, etc. This series never 
terminates. Good pumps will make the exhaustion so com- 
plete that the air remaining in the receiver will not support 
a colum of mercury over Yso of an inch. 

The Condenser is ah instrument used to force air into 
a vessel. It consists of a cylinder or barrel, with a valve at 
its base and a piston with a valve opening down^v^ard. The 
instrument is connected with the vessel in which the air is 
to be condensed and the piston moved up and down, usually 
by means of a handle. When the piston is drawn up, its 
valve opens and air enters the cyUnder. When the piston 
is pushed down, its valve closes, the pressure of the air 
causes the valve of the cylinder to open, thus causing the 
air to enter the vessel. Every downward stroke of the pis- 
ton thus adds a cyhnder full of air in the vessel. 

PNEUMATIC -HYDRAULIC MACHINES. 

Tbe Liift Pump, or Suction Pump, consists of a bar- 
rel, to the lower end of which is attached a pipe leading to 
the water. At the top of this pipe and in the piston are 
valves, both leading upwards. When the piston is raised 
its valve closes, and a partial vacuum is formed in the cylin- 
der below. Atmospheric pressure forces water up the suc- 
tion pipe, driving the air above it through the lower valve. 
When the piston is pushed downward the valve at the upper 
end of the suction pipe closes, and the confined air escapes 
through the valve in the piston. As the piston continues 
its work the air is gradually removed from the cylinder and 

S 



PHYSICS . 

the suction pipe, the water is forced upward by the press- 
ure of the atmosphere and hfted to the spout. Theoreti- 
cally the piston may be thirty-four feet above the level of 
the water, but, owing to mechanical imperfections, it should 
not be above twenty- eight feet. 

The Force Pump.— The operation of this pump is 
similar to that of the suction pump. The piston has no 
valve, and the outlet valve is usually placed at the lower 
end of the cylinder. When the piston is raised water is 
forced into the cylinder by atmospheric pressure. When 
the piston is forced downward the valve at the top of the 
suction pipe closes, and the water is forced into the dis- 
charge pipe. To secure a continuous stream of water the 
discharge pipe usually opens into an air chamber. The elas- 
ticity of the confined and compressed air forces the water 
from the nozzle of the delivery pipe in a continuous stream. 
Fire engines and nearly all steam pumps have such attach- 
ments. 

The Siphon is a tube with unequal arms used for trans- 
ferring Uquids from a higher to a lower level. The shorD 
arm is placed in the liquid and the air is drawn out of the 
long arm. The flow now begins and continues until the 
level of the hquid in the vessel has reached the lower end 
of the short arm. The action of the siphon is due to the 
inequahty of air pressure at each end of the arms. The 
downward pressure of the air causes the liquid to ascend to 
the curve of the siphon, and gravity does the rest. The 
height of the bend of the siphon above the liquid must not 
be greater than the height at which the air will support a 
column of water. 

HEAT. 

The temperature of a body depends upon the average 
kinetic energy of the molecules. Since quality of heat is 

6 



PHYSICS . 

the product of the average kinetic energy, multiplied by the 
number of molecules, we understand that the quantity of 
heat a body has depends both upon its mass and its tem- 
perature. 

A method of comparing temperatures, independent of 
our sensations, which are obviously unreliable, is found in 
expansion. By this term is meant the changes which heat 
causes in the volume of a body. 

A gas expands very rapidly when subjected to the action 
of heat; if confined so that it cannot expand, its pressure 
increases rapidly, i. e., the pressure of a given quantity of 
gas varies with its temperature. The rate of expansion is 
practically the same for all gases, and greater than it is for 
solids or Hquids. 

Liquids expand less rapidly than gases, and the rate of 
expansion varies for different hquids. Ice-cold water ex- 
pands about four per cent when heated to boiling; alcohol 
expands more than twice as fast as water, and mercury 
about one-half as fast. Substances that crystalMze when 
cooling, expand as they approach solidification. Ice is a 
famihar example of such a substance. 

Metals expand slowly when heated. The rate varies 
for different solids. It will be noted that metals expand 
most rapidly of all sohds. In mechanics, provision must be 
made for the enormous force with which they expand and 
contract when heated and cooled. This is noticeable in the 
laying of the rails of a railroad, in the construction of iron 
bridges and in placing furnace bars in brickwork. 

Absolute Zero is the temperature at which the mole- 
cular motions constituting heat wholly cease. This point 
has been theoretically placed at 273° below the centigrade 
zero, as it has been estimated that if air were a perfect gas, 
and could be cooled down to this point, it would cease to 

7 



PHYSICS . 

exert pressure. "_ Temperatures reckoned from this point as 
the zero point, are called absolute temperature. Abso- 
lute temperatures are obtained by adding 273 to the read- 
ings of a centigrade thermometer, or 460 to the readings of 
a Fahrenheit thermometer. 

liiquef action. — ^In order to reduce a solid to a liquid 
form, it is necessary to overcome the force of cohesion. To 
do this heat is required, and is utihzed, whether the process 
is effected by fusion or by solution. The heat disappears, 
i. e., it may be said to be absorbed. When a hquid changes 
to a solid, the energy employed in opposition to cohesion 
in maintaining molecular motion is released and appears as 
heat. The quantity of heat (specific heat) thus released 
during solidification, is the same as that which disappears 
during liquefaction. 

Gases and vapors are hquefied (condensed ) by a with- 
drawal of heat or by an increase of pressure, or both. The 
energy employed in maintaining the aeriform condition is 
released and appears as heat, equivalent in amount to that 
which disappears during vaporization. 

Vaporization is the process of converting a substance, 
especially a liquid, into vapor. This may be done in two 
ways — by the addition of heat or by a diminution of press- 
ure, or both. When the action takes place quietly at the 
surface of a hquid, it is called evaporation. When it takes 
place, by the rapid formation of bubbles of gas throughout 
the whole mass of the hquid, it is called ebullition or boil- 
ing. 

The rate of evaporation of a hquid (1) depends upon the 
nature of the hquid; (2) increases with the temperature; 
(3 ) increases with the extent of free surface ; (4) is increased 
by continual changes of air in contact with the hquid; (5) 
is increased by reducing the surface pressure. 

8 



PHYSICS . 

X]bullition. — If lieat is applied to a flask containing 
water, the water steadily rises in temperature. After a 
short time bubbles rise to the surface and escape. These 
are bubbles of air held in solution by the water. The water 
now begins to boil and steam escapes. If the temperature 
of the water be taken, the thermometer will read 100"^ C or 
a little more, but it remains constant while the boiling con- 
tinues; not until aU of the water has boiled away will the 
mercury rise any higher. 

Laws of Ebullition.— (1) A liquid boils when the 
pressure of its vapor becomes greater than pressure on its 
surface. (2 ) The temperature of the boiUng liquid or the 
liquefying vapor remains at the boiMng point until the 
change of condition is completed. (3) An irftrease of 
pressure raises the boihng point, and vice versa. (4) The 
boiling point of the same liquid, under the same conditions, 
is constant. 

Water may be heated above its true boiling point by 
confining the steam, and thus increasing the pressure. 
When the pressure is relieved, however, the superheated 
vapor expands immediately and temperature is reduced. 
If the boiling point of a substance is lower than its melting 
point, it vaporizes directly without previous hquefaction. 
The change is called sublimation. The pressure at which 
the melting point and the boiling point of any substance 
coincide is called the fusing point pressure. 

Fusion. — Whether a given substance exists in a solid, 
a liquid or a gaseous state, depends upon its temperature 
and the pressure it is under. When soUds are exposed to 
heat they generally liquefy or fuse. The temperature at 
which a sohd melts is called its fusion point. When ice 
melts its temperature remains constant until all is Hquefied. 
Heat imparted to a melting body affects its temperature 

9 



PHYSICS . 

very little, if any. Ice and other solids are not converted 
into liquids immediately when they reach the fusion point, 
but absorb a quantity of heat before fusion is accomplished. 
The heat, which disappears in melting, is called the lieat 
of fusion. 

Experiments show that ( 1 ) the melting point of differ- 
ent substances differ, but for the same substance, under 
constant pressure, the point is always the same. (2) The 
temperature of a melting solid, or of a sohdifying hquid, 
remains at the melting point until the change of condition 
is completed. (3) Pressure influences the melting point 
according as the sohd expands or contracts on melting. 

Evaporation. — As stated in a previous paragraph, a 
comparatively slow vaporization is called evaporation. 
Experiments have shown that evaporation depends ( 1) On 
the nature of the liquid. ( 2) It increases with a rise of 
temperature. (3) It increases with an increase of the free 
surface of the liquid. (4) It increases as pressure, atmos- 
pheric or otherwise decreases, being very rapid in a vacuum. 
(5) It is increased by a continual change of air in contact 
with the liquid. 

When a drop of ether or alcohol is placed upon the skin, 
cold is felt. When a hquid evaporates, heat is absorbed and 
rendered latent. This heat must come from some place, 
and when it is not suppHed by a body of high temperature, 
it is withdrawn from the hquid itself and from the bodies 
around it. As a result, temperature is lowered and cold is 
produced. The most intense cold attainable is produced 
by condensing gases to liquids by means of cold and press- 
ure, and then allowing the hquid to evaporate suddenly into 
a space free from air. By the evaporation of liquefied hy- 
drogen, a temperature of 243° has been obtained. 

10 



PHYSICS . 

Distillation. — In this process both vaporization and 
condensation are illustrated. The liquid or liquid mixture 
is heated in a retort; the vapor given off is conducted to 
the condenser, where it is condensed again to the Uquid 
form by the apphcation of cold. The most common form 
of the condenser is a spiral tube, called the "worm." The 
whole apparatus is called a "still." Distillation is employed 
for two purposes: (1) To remove solid impurities dis- 
solved in a Hquid. (2 ) To separate two liquids whose boil- 
ing points differ. Fractional distillation is the process 
of separating hquids which have different boiUng points. 
For example, if a mixture of alcohol and water be placed in 
a retort, and the temperature raised to a point between the 
boiling points of the two liquids, the vapor whifti leaves 
the retort is mostly alcohol. By allowing this vapor to pass 
through a hot receiver, the watery vapor will condense ; 
the remainder will pass on to the condenser. By repeated 
distillation the alcohol may be obtained in comparative pur- 
ity. 

Calorimetry is the process of measuring the amount 
of heat that a body absorbs or gives out in passing from one 
state or condition to another. A calorie is the quantity of 
heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water 
1° C. The quantity of heat necessary to raise the temper- 
ature of one gram of water 1° C, is called the specific heat 
of that substance. With the exception of hydrogen, water 
has the greatest specific heat of any known substance. Four 
times as much heat is required to raise the temperature of 
a given mass of water 1° C as to heat an equal mass of solid 
earth. 

Sensible heat is the molecular kinetic energy which 
affects temperature. Molecular potential energy does not 
affect temperature, and is known as latent lie at. 

11 



PHYSICS . 

There are three processes of transference or diffu- 
sion of heat— conduction, convection and radiation. 

When heat flows through an unequally heated body, 
from places of higher to those of lower temperature, the 
process is called conduction. Metals are the best conduc- 
tors. Liquids are generally poor conductors, and gasses are 
poorer conductors than liquids. Conduction takes place 
gradually and slowly from particle to particle. 

When part of a fluid, either liquid or a gas, is heated to 
a temperature above the surrounding portions, it expands 
and thus becomes lighter specifically. The cooler and heav- 
ier portions, of course, take the place of the lighter, and in 
this way all the fluid becomes heated. This mode is called 
convection, and the currents estabUshed in this way are 
convection currents. The Gulf Stream and the trade -winds 
are examples of convection currents on a grand scale. 

Ventilation.— The chief means of securing ventilation 
is through the agency of convection. In order to secure 
good ventilation of a room, there must be one or more in- 
lets, by means of which fresh air can enter, and one or more 
outlets, by means of which foul air can escape. When a 
room is heated by hot water or steam, heating and ventila- 
tion may be combined. Steam is conveyed by a pipe to a 
radiator box just beneath the floor of the room. The air 
contained in the box becomes heated by contact with and 
radiation from the coil of pipe contained in the box. The 
air rises through a passage opening into the room by means 
of a register. A supply of pure air is maintained by an 
opening into the box from the outside of the building. By 
this means the room is furnished with pure warm air. At 
least one outlet for the impure air must be provided. This 
is usually accompUshed by means of a ventilator, which 
opens into a ventilating flue. If there are several outlets, 

12 



PHYSICS . 

the wind may make some of them act as inlets, thus caus- 
ing objectionable down-drafts. 

In radiation, as a matter of fact, heat is not trans- 
ferred at all, although the energy transmitted is frequently 
called radiant heat; it is simply radiant energy. Undula- 
tory motion is transmitted through a medium called the 
ether, which is not itself heated thereby; the body which 
obstructs these ether waves transforms the radiant energy 
into heat. 

Laws of Radiation.— By means of experiment, the 
following laws have been observed: 

1. "Radiant heat travels in straight lines with the 
velocity of hght." « 

2. "The intensity of the radiant heat diminishes as the 
square of the distance from the source increases." 

3. "Radiant heat is reflected from a pohshed surface 
in the same way as light." 

4. "The rate of coohng of a body in the air varies as 
the excess of its temperature above that of the air." 

5. "The radiation from a body increases with the tem- 
perature." 

6. "The rate at which a body radiates heat depends on 
the nature of its surface. It is greater for rough or dark 
colored surfaces than for smooth or light colored surfaces." 

Absorption. — When heat falls on a body part of it is 
reflected, part is absorbed and part is transmitted through 
the body. The heat which is absorbed, by being trans- 
formed into sensible heat, raises the temperature of the 
body. By retaining the form of radiant heat, the heat which 
is transmitted through the body has no effect on the tem- 
perature. The nature of the surface of the given body in- 
fluences its power of absorption greatly. Bodies that are 

13 



PHYSICS. 

good radiators are good absorbers and poor reflectors; 
conversely poor radiators are poor absorbers and good re- 
flectors. 

Diathermacy. — A diathermanous body is a body that 
transmits radiant heat; a body that does not transmit ra- 
diant heat is called an athermanous body. A remarkable 
fact about diathermanous bodies is that they will transmit 
some kinds of heat rays better than others. Glass is a fa- 
mihar example of this fact. The rays of hght from the sun 
will enter a room through a glass window and warm the 
contents of the room, but the heat radiated by any object 
or objects that may be in the room cannot escape through 
the window. This is because the wave lengths are changed 
by reflection from objects within the room. 

Regelation. — If two pieces of ice are held firmly to- 
gether under water, they are soon frozen together. This 
phenomenon is known as regelation. Regelation may be 
explained by the fact that the melting point of ice is low- 
ered by pressure. It must, then, necessarily follow, that 
when the two pieces of ice above mentioned are held firmly 
together, part of the ice along the pressed surfaces is obliged 
to melt. In order that ice may melt, heat is necessary. The 
heat required is not supplied by the ice; consequently it 
must come from the film of water in contact with the 
pressed surfaces of the ice. The result is that this thin film 
of water freezes and the two pieces of ice are held together 
firmly. 

THERMO -DYNAMICS. 

Thermo-dynainics treats of the relation between heat 
and mechanical work. The conversion of mechanical energy 
into heat by friction, etc., is a very common phenomenon. 
The converse change of heat into energy of work is just as 
famiUar. The steam engine is the most important heat en- 

14 



PHYSICS . 

gine, or machine, for transforming heat into work (energy 
of mass motion) . It will readily be seen that the elastic 
force of steam is due entirely to heat. 

The Steam Engine. — The expansive power of steam 
was known long before any means were devised to use it in 
machinery. In the open air steam has comparatively httle 
power, but when confined in a closed vessel its efforts to 
expand produce enormous pressures. The modern steam 
engine consists essentially of an arrangement, by which 
steam from a boiler is conducted so as to enter a cyhnder, 
first at one end, then at the other; and then, having done 
its work in driving the piston to and fro, is discharged from 
each side alternately, either into the air or into a cdfadenser. 
More heat is carried to the cyhnder of a steam engine than 
is carried from it. The piston does work at every stroke, 
and every stroke annihilates heat. The moderm steam en- 
gine utihzes less than 15 per cent of the energy developed 
by the combustion of the fuel. 

When the exhaust steam escapes into the open air, the 
engine is said to be a "non- condensing engine." When it 
is led to a chamber and there condensed by a spray of cold 
water, the engine is said to be a "condensing engine." An 
instrument, called a steam gauge, is connected with the 
boiler. It measures the excess of pressure of the steam at 
any instant above the atmospheric pressure. 

Stationary engines are often supplied with a governor, 
which regulates and controls the supply of steam to the 
steam chest. It consists essentially of a vertical shaft, 
whicn carries two arms with heavy balls. The shaft is made 
to rotate by means of proper machinery. Centrifugal force 
tends to make the balls move away from the shaft, and in 
so moving they raise, by the means of connecting rods, a 
lever attached to a valve, which controls the supply of 

IS 






PHYSICS . 

steam. If the motion becomes too rapid, the lever rises 
and the valve closes. 

The locomotive is a high pressure, non- condensing 
engine. The pressure of the steam generated varies from 
75 to 175 pounds to the square inch. Instead of being con- 
densed, the steam is blown in puffs into the air. Metalhc 
tubes, conveying the hot gases of the furnace, pass through 
the boiler. In this way, as great an area of the boiler as 
possible is exposed to the action of heat, and consequently 
the water is vaporized very rapidly indeed. After having 
passed through the boiler, these tubes lead into the blast 
pipe, or the pipe by means of which the exhaust steam es- 
capes into the chimney. By this means a powerful draught 
for the fire is created— in fact, the fire burns best when the 
engine is in rapid motion, a time when great heat is re- 
quired. It is evident that the source of energy of a steam 
engine is derived from the heat evolved by the combustion 
of the coal. The potential energy of the coal of the furnace 
and the oxygen of the air is converted into visible energy, 
and mechanical work results. Experiments have shown 
that the exhaust steam of an engine is much cooler than 
that which enters the boiler, and that the amount of work 
done is equal to the heat that has disappeared. The horse 
power of an engine is obtained by means of the following 
formula: Horse Power = (Pressure in pounds per square 
inch on the piston X area of piston in square inches X length 
of stroke in feet X number of strokes per minute) -4- 33,000. 

Heat in the Atmosphere.— The temperature of the 
atmosphere falls as we rise above the earth's surface. The 
rate of fall varies, but the average fall is about 1° C for each 
500 feet of ascent. It must be remembered that the atmos- 
phere is not heated by the direct rays of the sun, but by 
heat radiated from the land and water and by convection 

16 



PHYSICS . 

currents of warm air rising from the land. As we ascend, 
the atmosphere rapidly decreases in density, and offers less 
resistance to the radiation of heat into the space beyond. 
Near the earth's surface the distribution of heat is very un- 
equal. The temperature at any place depends on the lati- 
tude, the season of the year, the position in respect to land 
and water, the hour of the day, etc. When the tempera- 
ture of the air is very high, it is capable of holding a great 
quantity of watery vapor before it becomes saturated. 
When the air becomes saturated with vapor, the pressure 
exerted by this vapor is called the maximum pressure of 
the vapor for that temperature. 

The temperature at which dew begins to forn is called 
the dew point. Dew is a deposit of moisture on the 
ground, or on loose objects lying on the ground. Dew is 
formed when the ground becomes cool enough at night to 
chill the air near it, so that some of the vapor it contains is 
converted into moisture. If the moisture is condensed upon 
the ground at a temperature below the freezing point, it 
forms frost. Dew and frost are formed more abundantly 
on clear and calm nights than on cloudy and windy nights. 
This may be explained by the fact that, on a bright day all 
bodies on which the sun shines grow warm, and moisture 
passes into the air by evaporation. It is evident that by 
sunset the atmosphere near the earth contains much mois- 
ture. After sunset the earth, and bodies on the earth, lose 
heat by radiation, and become much cooler. As a conse- 
quence, the atmosphere becomes cooled below the dew 
point, and dew is deposited upon the earth. On a cloudy 
and windy night, however, the surface of the earth is not 
much cooled, and, as a consequence, dew is not deposited. 

Kain and Snow. — Rain, snow, hail and sleet may all 
be included under the general term rainfall. Rain occurs 

17 



PHYSICS. 

when the moisture of the atmosphere is condensed into 
drops at temperature above the freezing point, or when 
snow flakes from a high altitude melt before they reach the 
ground. The cooling necessary to cause rain may be due 
to the mixing of masses of air of unequal temperature, but 
in the majority of cases it is due to the ascent and conse- 
quent expansion of warm, moist air. Snow is formed when 
the moisture of the air is condensed at a temperature below 
the freezing point. Sleet is half melted snow. Hail occurs 
chiefly during the summer months, when the ascending 
currents of air carry the rain drops so far upward that they 
are frozen before they fall. 

Fogs and Clouds.— A greater amount of watery va- 
por can be contained in warm than in cold air. If the air is 
not saturated with watery vapor, it may be made so by 
cooling the air until the vapor present is as much as can be 

contained at that temperature. Any further cooling will 
cause the air to become cloudy, and, if continued, will cause 
rain or snow. A cloud may be said to be nothing more than 
a mist that forms at a high altitude. A mist wets solid bod- 
ies; a fog does not. 

Winds. — The air from the polar regions is much warmer 
and heavier than that of the torrid zone. It tends to con- 
tinually creep under it, causing the warmer air to be Ufted 
up and flow toward the poles. A permanent circulation of 
the atmosphere is thus established between the warmer and 
colder regions of the earth. The rotation of the earth, how- 
ever, prevents the air currents from flowing north and 
south, but turn them somewhat to the east and west. Again, 
the unequal distribution of temperature and watery vapor 
at the earth^s surface causes an inequality of pressure. The 
equilibrium of the air is destroyed by this inequality of 
pressure; consequently the air flows from the place of 
higher to the place of lower pressure until the equilibrium 
is restored. The wind blows with a force depending upon 
the difference in pressure between the two places. 

18 



PHYSICS . 
OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

(THIRD PAPER.) 

1. What can you say of the diffusion of gases ? 

2. What is meant by the Kinetic theory of gases ? 

3. How is the momentum of air found? Describe the 
thermometer. 

4. In what respect does the Fahrenheit thermometer 
differ from the Centigrade thermometer ? 

6. Define Meteorology. How is atmospheric heat ob- 
tained ? 

6. Describe the air pump. The Condenser. 

7. Name some Pneumatic -Hydraulic machines. 

8. Describe the Siphon, Force Pump, Lift Pump. 

9. Upon what does the temperature of th^ body de- 
pend ? Compare the expansion of gases, hquids and metals , 

10. What is meant by a&solute zero ? Liquefaction ? 

11. Discuss Vaporization. Upon what does vaporiza- 
tion depend? 

12. Give the laws of Ebullition. Define sublimation. 
Fusing-point pressure. 

13. Discuss evaporation. Upon what does evaporation 
depend ? 

14. Describe the process of distillation. For what pur- 
pose is distillation employed ? 

15. What is the difference between sensible and latent 
heat ? Discuss ventilation. 

16. Give laws of radiation. What influences absorp- 
tion? What is the difference between a diathermanous 
body and an athermanous body ? 

17. What is regelation ? Explain fully. 

18. Describe the steam engine. 

19. What is the dew point? Why does dew not form 
on a cloudy night? 

20. Discuss Rain. Snow, Clouds, Winds. 

19 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

(THIRD PAPER.) 

"Study opens the treasures of antiquity." 

ROME. 

Borne, the mistress of the world, the arbitress of the 
fate of nations, in the zenith of her glory sending her 
mandates, enforced by the valor of her veteran legions, 
over the known world, haughty in her power, but,— strange 
inconsistency! — tolerant of the religions of her conquered 
foes, if only they showed no disrespect for the gods of 
Rome; Rome the nursing mother of the liberal arts, diffus- 
ing her literature and laws, step by step with the onward 
march of her armed hosts, such was Rome, the daughter 
and the conqueror of Greece. 

The strong elements of the Aryan character which had 
raised Greece to the high station which she filled among 
the nations of the East, seem to have grown stronger as 
they became grafted upon the stock of the Italian races. 
Our present knowledge of the people who inhabited the 
Italian peninsula in the earliest times, is confined chiefly to 
what we may learn from the early Latin historians. Much, 
of course, is largely fable, as is the case in the legendary 
history of any race. 

The Ligurians, and Venetians exerted but slight in- 
fluence upon the history of Italy. Among the most im- 
portant tribes were the lapyges, who occupied that 
portion of Italy which the Romans called Calabria, 
but which was named by the Greeks Messapia. They are 
supposed to have been the founders of the Greek colonies 
in that region, fleeing thither after the destruction of Ilium, 
and antedating the arrival of the Trojan Aeneas. Their 

1 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

language, closely resembling the Greek, is tlie chief 
evidence upon which this theory is based. 

The two chief branches of the aboriginal Italians were 
the Hiatiiis and the Sabellines. The Latins were confined 
to a small plain of about seven hundred square miles be- 
tween the Tiberand the Apennines. The Etruscans at first 
dwelt north of the Po, but migrating to the south they 
formed a confederacy. They are supposed to have been the 
descendants of the Turanians. 

They were a stout and muscular race, of a more sturdy 
Duild physically than the more graceful Itahans, were very 
superstitious, ascribing great importance to the arts oV 
magic, but soon by contact with their more advanced 
neighbors, became themselves more civilized, advancing 
rapidly in the mechanical arts, and becoming the best 
architects in Italy, herein showing the effect of their 
descent from the civilizing race. 

The Romans, proper, held to the tradition that the 
founder of their race was .^Eneas, who had fled from Troy, 
upon its destruction, and had landed upon the coast of 
Latium. Virgil makes this tradition the basis of his 
poem, "The .^neid." 

Without giving any credence to the fables regarding 
Romulus and Remus, we can with some historical ac- 
curacy consider that a settlement made by a band of Ram- 
nians (Romans), on the hills bordering upon the Tiber, was 
the foundation of Rome, This settlement, about 753 B. 
C, was about eighteen miles from the mouth of the river. 
As is usual in the history of barbarous tribes, it soon became 
involved in contests with its neighbors which continued 
until its leadership was acknowledged by them. 



GENEBAL HISTORY. 

ROMAN KINGDOM (753 B. C.-509 B. C. ) 
The government of Rome was, at first, founded upon 
the theory of equal rights for all. The King, or chief ruler, 
was chosen for life, by the heads of families, and had the 
right to select as his counselors, a body of *'patres" 
(fathers), though in his own election all citizens had a right 
to vote. In the assemblies of the people, comitla curiata, 
(town meeting), laws were passed by the people, war or 
peace declared and other matters affecting the interests of 
the people, determined. In time the citizens were divided 
into three classes, the patricians, or nobles, and the 
plebeians, or common people, in which latter class were 
enrolled the citizens of the subject states. A ifchird class 
consisting of debtors to the patricians, and slaves taken as 
prisoners in war, embraced a large part of the population. 
The early records of Rome having been destroyed by 
the Gauls, who burned the city, the history of Rome under 
the Kings, of whom there are said to have been seven, is 
entirely traditionary. Romulus was, of course, the first, 
and was succeeded by Numa Pompilius, who is said to 
have established the religious institutions of the city, to 
have reformed the calendar, and to have built the temple 
of Janus, the doors of which were never closed except in 
time of peace. Tullus Hostilius, the third King, and 
Ancus Martins^ the fourth, by whom was founded Ostia, 
the port of Rome at the mouth of the Tiber, and who also 
erected the first strong defense of Rome, — the Janiculum, 
— Tarquinius Prisons, builder of the temple of Jupiter 
(chief god of Rome), of the great circus (Circus Max- 
imus), and of the Cloaca Maxima, (great sewer) the 
most useful work of all,— the remains of which are still of 
public utility, Servius TuUius, who enclosed the entire 
city in waUs and Tarquinius Superbus,— the last King, 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

comprise the list of those who reigned until 509 B. C. 
In 509 the monarchy was succeeded by the Roman Republic. 

EOMAN REPUBLIC. 

For more than a century and a half from its beginning, 
the history of the Repubhc is a record of contests between 
the Patricians and Plebeians, during which contests the 
classification of rights, duties and powers of each class pro- 
duced the constitution and code of laws which gave Rome? 
for many centuries, her pre-eminence among civilized 
nations. 

The Kings were succeeded by two Consuls, elected 
annually. Their duties and authority resembled those of 
the Kings', and their dignity was enhanced by the office 
being confined for nearly one hundred and sixty years to 
the Patricians. Besides their civil powers, they were also 
legally the generals of the army in war. Junius Brutus 
and Collatinus, were the first to hold the office of con- 
suls. It was during this early period of the Repubhc that 
the legendary accounts of Lars Porsenna, Mucins Scsevola, 
Horatius, and of the famous battle of Regillus became im- 
bedded in what may be called semi-historic records. (Read 
Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome.) 

An pohtical power being left in the hands of the nobles, 
the plebeians were slowly but surely reduced to a con- 
dition resembhng the serfdom of mediaeval Europe. This 
condition and the compulsory performance of mihtary duty, 
finally drove the plebeians to the desperate alternative of 
secession from the city. They withdrew in a body to the 
Sacred Mount, — three or four miles distant, and de- 
termined to estabhsh a new city. The nobles were thus, in 
turn, driven to measures which they would otherwise have 
stubbornly rejected, They canceled their claims against 

4 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

their debtors, freed the slaves, and granted the appoint- 
ment of two magistrates— Tribunes— to be chosen from 
the ranks of the plebians, who were to have the power of 
Veto (I forbid), by which they could annul any law passed 
by the Senate, (Patricians). The seceders now returned to 
the city. 

The nobles had been guilty of the unjust and illegal act 
of seizing the public lands, though the constitution required 
that these were to be partly divided among the poor. 
Spurius Cassius, a nobleman of high rank, distinguished 
for integrity, in order to correct an abuse which he 
saw was fraught with danger to the Republic, proposed 
about 486 B. C. the first "Agrarian Law" \^ich pro- 
vided for an equitable partition of the public lands. The 
law was enacted, but the power of the patricians made it a 
dead letter, partly because the Tribunes were not elected 
by the people at the "Assembly of the Tribes," but at 
the "Assembly of the Hundreds," Comitia Centu- 
riata. This agrarian struggle culminated in a law pro- 
posed by Volero Publilius, called by his name, which 
broke the power of the nobles and made Rome a demo- 
cratic state, (471 B. C.) 

In a somewhat later period — about 460 B. C, we find 
the legend of Cincinnatus, the famous patrician who 
preferred the life of a farmer to that of a denizen of Rome^ 
but who was thrice in his hfe called to save his country 
from its foreign foes, — once as a consul, and twice as Die" 
tator, (an office which gave absolute power for one year), 
always returning to his country home, followed by the 
gratitude and blessings of the country which he had freed 
from its dangers. 

During this period three persons were sent to Athens 
and the Greek colonies in Southern Italy, to study their 
system of legislation. When they returned^ ten persons-^ 

5 



GENEBAX. HISTORT. 

Decemvirs — were appointed to prepare a code of laws, 
(450 B. C.) by which the common people hoped to secure 
the rights for which they had long contended, and for which 
they had heretofore no constitutional support. These De- 
cemvirs superseded all other magistrates, even the Tribunes 
of the people. 

The foundation of Roman jurisprudence — the "Twelve 
Tables" — were the laws enacted in response to their rec- 
ommendations. They were set up in prominent positions 
that all might read them, and committed to memory by the 
boys in the schools, — as more than half a century ago, the 
boys in many eastern schools were required to commit to 
memory our Declaration of Independence. 

At the end of the first year of the Decemvirate, the in- 
cumbents, who had ruled with such great justice, as to 
satisfy the people, were re-elected, with few exceptions. 
Appius Claudius, one of the re-elected, however, man- 
aged to have a number of like character to himself elected, 
— bold, wicked, ambitious men. A vile crime committed 
by him in seizing Virgioia, the daughter of a soldier named 
Virginius, and claiming her as the daughter of a slave 
belonging to a chent of Appius, caused her. father to plunge 
his knife into his daughter's heart to save her from dis- 
honor. The news of the outrage perpetrated by Appius 
caused a revolt in the army, and finally led to the restora- 
tion of the former mode of government, (449 B. C.) In 
a few years the plebians were made equally eUgibile with 
the patricians to the consulship. 

During this period, the Gauls, a brave but barbarous 
branch of the Celts, had become masters of nearly aU of 
western Europe, and also of northern Italy. Advancing 
still southward they attacked Clusium. The assistance of 
the Romans was invoked by the Clusians. Ambassadors 



GENERAL HISTORY . 

sent out by Rome to demand that the Gauls should leave 
the territory of their neighbors, received from Brennus 
the answer: "The title of brave men is their swords." A 
battle ensuing, — in which the Roman ambassadors should 
have maintained a neutral position, but in which they joined 
the forces of Clusium, — caused Brennus to abandon the 
siege of Clusium, and march with his army of about seventy- 
five thousand men toward Rome. He defeated the Roman 
army a few miles from Rome, and entered the city. 

Two fables are related concerning this occupancy: 
the one referring to the salvation of the Roman garrison 
in the citadel by the sacred geese of Juno's temple; the 
other regarding Camilius, who is said to have prevented 
the payment of the city's ransom in gold and declaring that 
"Rome should be ransomed only with steel,"— to have 
attacked and defeated the Gauls. One thing is certain, — 
when the Gauls left the city it was left in ruins, and all its 
records being destroyed by them, none but legendary his- 
tory remains of events preceding this invasion. 

To relieve the people from the distresses occasioned by 
the invasion of the Gauls, and the oppressions of the cred- 
itor class, the Licinian Laws (367 B. C), (Licinius Stolo 
and L. Sextus, proposers ) were passed. These laws em- 
braced three important provisions : ( 1 ) Interest already 
paid, should be deducted from the principal of borrowed 
money, and the balance should be paid in three yearly pay- 
ments, (the fouiidation of the modern usury laws); (2) 
No one should hold more than about three hundred and 
twenty acres (500 jugera, ) of land, (thus preventing land 
monopoly); and (3) that one of the two consuls to be there- 
after elected, in place of military tribunes, — should be 
of the plebeian order, (thus giving this rank a more equal 
share in the government). 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

The usual, natural result of the passage and attempted 
enforcement of these laws followed. The nobles resisted 
the curtailment of their powers; the people insisted upon 
the granting of their rights; but in the end a perfect eqaal- 
ity existed in the ehgibility of both patricians and plebeians 
to all offices, including those of Pontiffs (priests) and 
Augurs ( soothsayers) and Rome was ready to commence 
the conquest of the world. 

TRIBAL WARS. 

In a period of seventy- five years, Rome in four wars 
brought all of Italy under her sway. The first war ( about 
the middle of the fourth century B. C.) with the Samnites, 
a warhke tribe of central Italy,— continued two years and 
resulted in the tribe suing for peace. This peace lasted 
but a few years, when the Samnites defeated the Romans 
at the Caudine Forks, and compelled them to "pass 
under the yoke"— a token of submission. After a brief 
peace of seven years, Rome, in turn, defeated the Samnites 
and their allies, the Umbrians, Etrurians and Gauls, at 
Sentinum, (295 B. C.) and by this gained the dominion 
over nearly all Italy. Rome then turned her forces north- 
ward to punish the Etrurians and Gauls for aiding the 
Samnites, and in a short time reduced them to subjection. 

Meanwhile a war was waged against the cities of 
Latium. This territory was conquered and annexed to 
Rome about 338 B. C. 

Rome now declared war against Tarentum, a city 
founded by a Greek colony. The Tarentines, unable to 
cope with their strong neighbor, sought the aid of Pyrrhus, 
King of Epirus, the greatest general of his time. Pyrrhus 
having landed in Italy, defeated the Romans commanded 
by Consul Laevinus. His victory was largely due to his 
employment in the battle, of elephants carrying armed 

8 



OENEBAIi HISTORY. 

men upon their backs. The Romans were terrified by the 
sight, -even, of these huge animals to which they were 
unaccustomed. 

Pyrrhus paid dearly for his success in the loss of his 
ablest generals and best troops. He gained, however, the 
addition to^his forces of many of the Itahan tribes, and 
advanced with his forces to within eighteen miles of Rome, 
The offer of peace, which he now made, was rejected. The 
next year, after spending the winter at Tarentum, he a 
second time defeated the Romans, though himself losing 
heavily. 

Leaving Tarentum, he now went to Sicily to drive out 
the Carthaginians, but meeting with no suc(!^ss in this 
undertaking, he returned in two years, to Tarentum. 

Having' been defeated by the Roman army under the 
Consul, Curius Dentatus, at Beneventum, a town in 
Samnium, near Capua, he now finally retired from Italy 
(275 B. C.),«with an almost total loss of the veteran troops 
which he had brought with him. 

After the withdrawal of Pyrrhus, the Tarentines asked 
the aid of the Carthaginians, by whom a fleet was sent in 
response. But the Romans having succeeded in taking 
Tarentum, the Samnites and other Itahan alUes of the 
Tarentines soon submitted. Rome was now the mistress 
of Italy (272 B. C). 

She at once organized a system of effective govern- 
ments over the conquered territory. Some portions were 
placed under the control of prefects,— magistrates "sent 
from Rome; some were organized as municipal towns, 
from which she exacted mihtary service, while local affairs 
were left to the control of the inhabitants; and in others 
she planted colonies of Roman citizens, who were given 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

the conquered lands, and ruled the inhabitants who were 
thus somewhat in the position of serfs. 

To facihtate the rapid movement of troops, Rome built 
military roads from the city to the capitals of her prov- 
inces — (the Appian Way, "via Appii," is an example, 
built by Appius Claudius). 

Her system of water supply for the city was also en- 
larged by the building of long acqueducts over hills, 
across valleys, and in subterranean channels. 

FOREIGN CONQUESTS. 

During this period,— from 264 B. C. to 133 B. C.,— the 
history of Rome is especially remarkable for the splendor 
of its military development, and for the rapidity and extent 
of its conquests, ending in the subjugation or destruction of 
all rival nations, whose independent existence and military 
power were a threat to the rising power of Rome. Her 
conquest and pacification of Italy, — the large and numerous 
colonies of her own loyal citizens, now reheved her from 
the danger of serious internal troubles, which for two hun- 
dred and thirty years, — in which time the doors of the 
temple of Janus had been closed but once, — ^had delayed 
her progress. Rome now set out to punish the nations 
which had violated their pledges to her, and to carry her 
arms against others with whom she had not come in 
contact. 

Carthage was her great and growing rival across the 
Mediterranean. With this city of seven hundred thousand 
people, having behind it a history of seven hundred years 
of magnificent power and progress, did she first enter into 
the arena of battle, waging with Carthage the three fearful 
wars styled in history the "Punic Wars." 

Carthage,— a Phcenician Colony in its origin, — had in- 
herited the commercial instincts of Tyre, and was now one 

10 



GENERAJL HISTORY. 

of the greatest maritime nations of tlie world, her ships 
swarming in the waters of the Mediterranean, her wealth 
increased by the tribute she collected from three hundred 
cities of Africa, and her conquests in Sardinia, Sicily, and 
Spain, rendering her nearness to the domain of Rome an 
element dangerous to peace. 

Syracuse, in Sicily, alone retained its independence 
of Carthage. This city and its territory had been founded 
by a colony of Corinthians in the eighth century, B. C, 
and within three centuries had become a populous and 
strong state ruled by Gelon, a noble patriot. While ruled 
by the famous "tyrant of Syracuse," Dionysius, it had suc- 
cessfully resisted Carthaginian aggressions. ^ 
FIRST PUNIC WAH.— (264 B. C.-241 B. C). 

After the death of Agathocles, who had become King 
of Syracuse, 317 B. C, a body of Campanian troops in his 
service seized Messana, an important town in Sicily and 
slaughtered the inhabitants, after which they assumed the 
title of **M:ainertines," — "sons of Mars, or warhke men." 

Hiero, King of Syracuse, marched against the Mamer- 
tines, 264 B. C, and defeated them. The Mamertines now 
asked the assistance of Rome. Although Hiero had aided 
Rome and was her ally, this did not deter Rome from send- 
ing forces to Sicily to assist the Mamertines. Hiero then 
formed an alliance with Carthage. In this manner, wars 
between the two great repubUcs, lasting more than a cen- 
tury, were caused by the ambition of a band of mercenaries. 

In a brief period, Hiero returned to his allegiance to 
Rome, after the Romans had gained several victories in 
Sicily. Syracuse and other cities in the island joined the 
Roman faction. Agrigentum was taken by Roman forces, 
a fleet built, and a naval victory over the Carthaginians 
gained, the Consul Duillius commanding. 

11 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

A fleet in command of Regulus was then sent to 
attack Carthage. The troops landing near the city were 
defeated by Xanthippus, a renowned Spartan general in 
the service of the Carthaginians, elephants and camels 
again playing an important part in the battle in which the 
greater part of the Romans were slain or captured, Regulus 
being among the latter. (255 B. C. )• 

Four years later, Hamilcar, having been defeated by 
the Roman army under Consul MetuUus, sent Regulus, his 
prisoner, as a messenger to Rome to ask peace, obtaining 
from him a pledge to return in case of failure. Regulus, 
loyal to the interests of his country, advised the Senate to 
continue the war. He then returned to Carthage, where 
he was put to death, thus redeeming his pledge by the loss 
of his hfe. 

In 241 B. C, peace was granted by Rome, but only upon 
the rigidly exacted conditions that the Carthaginians should 
evacuate Sicily, should return all Romans held as prison- 
ers, should acknowledge the independence of Syracuse and 
pay all the expenses of the war. 

With the exception of Syracuse and its dependent ter- 
ritory, Sicily was now organized as a Roman province. A 
far more important result of this war, was the making of 
Rome a great naval power. 

The misfortunes of Carthage continued. Her African 
allies, and the mercenaries in her employ now revolted. 
This diflaculty was finally ended by the skill of the great 
Carthaginian, Hamilcar. 

Rome had quigkly availed herself of the opportunity 
afforded by the embarrassment of Carthage, to seize Sar- 
dinia, converting it into a province of Rome. The orginiza- 
tion of Sicily and Sardinia in this manner, may be said to 
have constituted the beginning of Rome's provincial 

12 



GENERAL. HISTORY. 

system of government applied to conquered foreign coun- 
tries, one chief feature of this system being the payment 
to Rome of tribute, (or taxes). 

The Illyrian pirates who infested the Adriatic Sea, 
were now sought out by the Roman fleet and destroyed, 
thus relieving the eastern shores of Italy from their 
devastating inroads. 

The Gauls, who had gained a strong hold upon the 
northern part of Italy, — Cisalpine Gaul, — were defeated, 
thus completing the conquest of thafc part of the state lying 
between the Alps and the Apennines. 

During this period the Carthaginians, who still held 
possession of Spain, had conquered,— under tl^ guidance 
of Hamilcar, — the Celts and Iberians, strong and warlike 
tribes who inhabited the northern sections of Spain, and 
had trained them to arms, thereby making them valuable 
auxiharies to the Carthaginian army. Rich silver mines 
were also opened by them in portions of their territory, 
the town of Nova Cartliagena estabhshed, and a period 
of peaceful prosperity seemed about to dawn upon a war - 
stricken land. But ambition and a desire to obtain revenge 
prompted Hannibal, the son of Hamilcar, — by whose 
death-bed Hannibal had sworn to avenge the injuries suf- 
fered by Carthage, to attack Roman possessions. This he 
did, capturing Saguntum, an ally of the Romans in Spain, 
218 B. C. 

SECOND PUNIC WAR (218 B. C.-201 B. C). 

The second Punic War was the result of this step. 
Hannibal led his forces over the Pyrenees with the expecta- 
tion that the recently conquered Gauls would at once flock 
to his standard, and that he would also be aided by those 
Italian States which he had been led to think awaited only 
his advent to rise in arms against the Romans. 

13 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

Met by the Roman forces commanded by tbe Consul 
Scipio, at the Ticinus River, he defeated them, and 
continued his march until near the river Trebia, he en- 
countered a second body of Romans under the command 
of the consul Sempronius. These were also routed by 
the bold Carthaginian, (218 B. C). 

Within a year after Hannibal had gained these suc- 
cesses, he again defeated the Romans in a battle near 
Lake Trasimenus, in which engagement the Roman 
army was almost destroyed, and Rome left with but slight 
protection. Hannibal, instead of following up this victory, 
waited vainly for the Italians to join him; and the Romans, 
in their emergency, appointed Fabius Maximus, dictator. 

Fabius adopted a "guerilla" plan of warfare, small 
bands of his troops continually harassing the forces of 
Hannibal and disappearing "Uke a cloud on the moun- 
tains," after an attack. By this means, "the Fabian 
poUcy," Fabius exhausted the resources of the enemy and 
well merited the title given him by his countrymen, — the 
"Shield of Rome." 

By the summer of 216 B. C, Hannibal had advanced as 
far as Cannse, where he was met by a very large Roman 
army, under the joint command of ^miMus and Varro. 
The battle gave to the Carthaginians their fourth victory. 
-It is said that fifty thousand Romans fell on the field of 
battle, and that Hannibal sent to Carthage more than a 
bushel of gold rings plucked from the hands of Roman 
Senators and Knights slain in battle. 

After the result of this battle became known, some of 
the Itahan tribes in the south revolted from Rome, though 
the Greek cities and the greater part of Italy remained her 
faithful alUes. 

14 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

Hannibal decided to go into winter quarters at Capua 
and there await reinforcements. But the Romans sent 
Piiblius Cornelius Scipio into Spain to prevent the 
sending of aid to Hannibal. In ten years, Scipio reduced 
Spain to a Roman province, (216-205 B. C.) 

The forces of Hannibal were now so greatly reduced 
that he protected himself with difficulty against Fabius 
and his colleague Marcellus,— the "Sword of Rome." 

Upon the death of Hiero, King of Syracuse, the people 
established a popular government, and soon afterwards 
declared war against Rome. After a siege of two years 
Syracuse was taken by Marcellus, 212 B. C. A great mas- 
sacre followed the capture. In this slaughter, ilhe famous 
philosopher, Arcliimedes, who had greatly aided his 
fellow- citizens in their assaults upon the besiegers by the 
machines he invented, was slain. 

Meantime, Hannibal, disappointed in his hope of rein- 
forcements from Carthage, awaited in camp the approach 
of his brother, Hasdrubal, who having crossed the Alps 
was on the march to join him. His army, however, was 
intercepted by the Romans and defeated; the head of 
Hasdrubal, who was slain in battle, thrown into Hannibal's 
camp was the first intimation the latter had of his brother's 
fate. 

Rome having now decreed to "carry war into Africa," 
Scipio was placed in command, and landed, 204 B. C, near 
Utica where he defeated the Carthaginian and Numidian 
forces. From this point he then marched almost to the 
very gates of Carthage, which was now placed under a 
close siege. 

Hannibal, who had been recalled from Bruttium with 
the remn^its of his army, drew up in battle array at 
Zama; and seeing that his army was much inferior in 

IS 



oe:p^ebail, history. 

numbers to that of the Romans, he made proposals of 
peace to Scipio by whom they were rejected. The defeat 
of Hannibal at Zama, 202 B. C, ended the second Punic 
War. 

As the price of peace Carthage agreed to evacuate 
Spain, her last foothold in Europe, to return all Romans 
held as prisoners by her, to make payment for fifty years 
of a heavy tribute in gold, and to undertake no future wars 
against Rome. Scipio, on his return home, was honorod 
with a great triumph, and the title Af ricanus was con- 
ferred upon him. 

Hannibal, a few years later, was compelled to flee for 
safety from the hostihty of his countrymen and the Romans 
to the court of Antiochus the Great, King of Syria, whom 
he assisted in his war against the Romans. The latter pre- 
vaihng in the contest demanded of Antiochus, as a con- 
dition of peace, the surrender of Hannibal. Hannibal now 
fled to Bithynia; but being closely followed by his unre- 
lenting foes, in order to avoid falhng into their hands, he 
took his own hfe, 183 B. C. 

The conquest of Macedonia and Greece was the next 
step in the onward march of Rome. Phihp, King of Mace- 
donia, had assisted the Carthaginians in their struggles 
with Rome. Rome never forgot, nor left unavenged, an 
injury, real or fancied. In addition to the offense already 
given by Philip, he was plotting the conquest of Egypt, 
Pergamus and Rhodes. Rome claimed these as her alhes 
and under her protection. This was a sufficient excuse for 
her to enter upon war with Macedonia. 

Flamininus, the Roman general placed in command 
of the invading forces, soon united the whole of Greece, as 
alhes, by proclaiming her independence of Philip. At the 
battle of Cynos-Cephalae, 197 B. C, the power of Mace- 

16 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

donia was broken, and Rome, the "mistress of Italy" 
became the "arbitress of nations." 

Five years later, war against Antiochus, King of Syria, 
was entered upon, 192 B. 0. This King, without asking the 
con^*' it of Rome, had presumed to attempt the subjugation 
of Asia Minor. An unforgiven aggravation, he had also 
given refuge to Hannibal, Rome's bitterest enemy, and 
had allowed his escape. He had finally filled the cup of 
Roman wrath to the brim, by sending aid to the ^tolians. 
His Greek allies were defeated at Thermopylae, 191 B. C, 
and his fleet scattered. In the battle of Magnesia, Asia 
Minor, the army under his personal command was routed 
by the Roman general Lucius Scipio, who in ho^j^or of this 
victory received the title of Asiaticus. 

Human honors are often fleeting. The two Scipios, 
— Asiaticus and Africanus, — were subsequently accused by 
their rivals and enemies in Rome, of the crime of embez- 
zling the pubMc funds. Publius Scipio Africanus retired 
from Rome disgusted by the ingratitude of his countrymen, 
and died in Campania 183 B. C. Lucius Scipio Asiaticus, 
suffering the persecutions of his enemies for a time, was 
afterwards honored by the State for his eminent services. 

Phihp, of Macedonia, was succeeded by Perseus, who 
made an attempt to free Macedonia and Greece from 
Roman domination. After a war of three years' duration, 
he was conquered at Pydna, 168 B.C. 

.^niilius Paulus, his conqueror, entered Rome in 
triumphal procession, Macedonia having been finally united 
to the Roman dominions by him one hundred and forty- 
four years after the death of Alexander the Great. 

Corinth, an important city of Greece, was captured 
and burnt to the ground by the Romans, 146 B. C, thus 
leaving in the peninsula no city of strength sufficient to 
make it a center of revolt against the power of Rome. 

17 



OENEBAL HISTORY. 

THIRD PUNIC WAR (149 B. 0.-146 B. C.)- 

Though Carthage was subdued and no longer a dan- 
gerous rival to Rome, yet a strong party of Roman leaders 
were determined to effect its complete destruction. It is 
said that Porcius Cato, the Censor, ended every speech he 
dehvered in the Senate with "Delenda est Carthago,'^ 
(Carthage must be destroyed). This unquenchable hatred 
was the real cause of this final war with Carthage, the pre- 
text was furnished by the Numidians who had long been 
allies of the doomed city. 

Allured by the weak condition in which the Carthagin- 
ians had been left by the second war with Rome, Masin- 
issa. King of the Numidians, made inroads, which the city 
repelled, into the territory of Carthage. 

The Roman claim that the Numidian was an ally of 
of Rome was a sufllcient pretense for Rome to interfere. 
In order to turn aside the hostility of Rome, Carthage ban- 
ished from her domains all who had given offense, and 
gave up her arms and military supplies. The sacrifice was 
profitless; Carthage was told that she must yield to total 
destruction. Driven to desperation the citizens shut their 
gates, put to death every Roman whom they could seize, 
manufactured weapons and determined to fight to the end. 

Under the leadership of their skilled general, Hasdrubal, 
they kept the Romans without the walls for three years, 
until the Romans, led by Scipio Africanus Junior, 
scaled the walls (146 B. C). After a continuous slaughter 
of six days' durations the city was burned. Every house 
which escaped the flames, was, by the order of the Roman 
Senate, razed. The conquered territory was organized as 
the province of Africa, with Utica as its capital. The site 
of the city remained a desert until the second century A. 
D., when it was rebuilt by the emperor Augustus, and be- 
came in the lapse of about two hundred years, one of the 
finest cities in the Roman Empire. 

18 



GENERAL. HISTORY. 

The destruction of this new city of Carthage by the 
Arabs occurred about A. D. 700. Only a few ruins to-day 
show the site of this great rival of Rome. 

The Carthaginians, who had settled in Numantia, a city 
in the northern part of Spain, continued their resistance to 
Rome for some years after the destruction of Carthage. 
Commanded by Viriatis, whose mihtary skill made him 
the equal of the best generals of Rome, this city withstood 
a siege, by Scipio ^mihanus, of fifteen months. The fam- 
ished inhabitants, who had even eaten the dead, were after 
the city was captured, sold into slavery, and the city 
destroyed. 

Rome had now become the "sole great power %f the 
world." Confined to Italy at the beginning of this period 
of conquest, at its close she had extended her sway over 
all southern Europe from the Atlantic to the Euxine, and 
had made her power dreaded by the kingdoms east of the 
Mediterranean, even as far as Egypt. All of this rapidly 
acquired territory was now governed by her, as provinces 
of Rome under control of proconsuls. 

Her great conquests added great wealth to the city; 
many great improvements were made to promote its wel- 
fare, and, true to Roman custom, more mihtary roads were 
built. The conquest of Greece added to her population a 
long list of Greek scholars, teachers and musicians, who 
introduced the study of Greek Hterature and advanced the 
adoption of the refining Greek customs. Plautus, Terence 
and other writers mark the rapid rise of Latin Hterature. 
But with these advantages which wealth brought were 
sown the seed of hcentiousness and corruption, effeminacy 
and profligacy, which in after years led to dissensions, 
civil, and servile wars in the next period, and to the down- 
fall of this mighty power in the end. 

19 



GENERAL. HISTORY. 
OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

( THIRD PAPER. ) 

1. Who were tlie Etruscans? 

2. How many Kings ruled in Rome? 

3. In what year did the Kingdom come to an end? 
What form of government followed? 

4. How were the early records of Rome destroyed? 

5. What was the first gain of the Plebeians toward 
equal rights with the Patricians? 

6. What was the Decemvirate? 

7. What was the Appian Way? 

8. What were the Licinian Laws? 

9. What were the Samnite Wars? 

10. Who was Pyrrhus? 

11. What were the causes of the Punic Wars? 

12. Who was Hasdrubal? Hannibal? 

13. Name the battles of the second Punic War and tell 
which side was victorious in each. 

14. Who was called the "shield of Rome" and why? 

15. How did Pubhus Cornehus Scipio Africanus earn 
his title "Afticanus." 

16. What were the terms of peace at the end of the 
Second Punic War? 

17. What was the cause of the Third Punic War? 

18. What did Rome gain by the following battles: 
Magnesia, Pydna? 

19. Compare the condition of Carthage at the begin- 
ning and at the end of the Punic Wars. 

20. How did Hannibal meet his death? 



20 



CIVIL GOVE,RNMENT. 

(THIRD PAPER. ) 

*'The duty of each generation is to gather up its inher- 
itance from the past and thus to serve the present and 
prepare better things for the future". 

THE CONSTITUTION, continued. 

Sec. III. Clause 5. The Senate shall choose their other 
officers^ and also a president pro tempore^ in the absence of 
the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the oj^oe of 
President of the United States. 

When the vice-president presides over the senate he 
has no vote unless there is a tie. When the pres^ent pro- 
tempore presides he has a vote, whether there is a tie or 
not, because he is a senator. 

Clause 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all 
impeachments: when sitting for that purpose, they shall he on 
oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States 
is tried, the Chief- Justice shall preside] and no person shall 
he convicted without the concurrence of two thirds of the 
members present. 

Impeachment is defined as the accusation and arraign- 
ment of a high civil officer. "The articles of impeachment 
are a sort of indictment; and the House, in presenting 
them, acts as a grand jury, and also as a public pros- 
ecutor". (Story). The Senate, in listening to the pros- 
ection and in rendering a decision acts as a judge and petit 
jury. In case the President is tried, the vice-president 
does not preside as in other cases, because it would be to 
his advantage to convict. 

Clause 7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not 
extend further than to removal froTYi office, and disqualifica- 
tion to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit 
under the United States; but the party convicted shall never- 
theless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, 
and punishment, according to law. 



CIVIL GOVERyMENT. 

The impeached person is tried simply as an offending 
official, not as an offending citizen. As an official he can 
only be removed and disqualified, or removed without be- 
ing disqualified. But if he has violated a state law (by 
committing murder, for instance), he will still be subject 
to trial under the laws of the state in which the crime was 
committed. There have been only seven cases of im- 
peachment of U. S. officials and two convictions. 

In 1803 John Pickering, U. S. district judge in New 
Hampshire, was impeached for intemperance and mal- 
feasance in office and was removed. 

In 1860 W. W. Humphreys, U. S. district judge in Ten- 
nessee, was impeached for treason in advocating and aid- 
ing secession and was removed and disquahfied. 

Andrew Johnson was the only president impeached. 

He missed conviction by one vote. 

Section IV. Clause 1. The times, places, and manner 
of holding elections for senators and representatives shall be 
prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the 
Congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such regu- 
lations, except as to places of choosing senators. 

In 1872 Congress passed an act providing that the first 
Tuesday after the first Monday in November should be the 
day for the election of representatives. This is also the 
day when votes are cast for presidential electors and for 
state officers. 

In 1871 Congress passed an act requiring the use of 

written or printed ballots, and in 1899 the use of the voting 

machine was approved. As the senators are chosen by the 

legislatures at the respective state capitals, it is right that 

Congress should have no authority to dictate the place of 

choosing. 

Clause 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in 
every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in 
December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. . 



CIVIL GOVERyMENT. 

Each regular session of Congress begins on the first 
Monday in December. The term of each Congress is two 
years. Therefore there are two regular sessions for each 
Congress. But since the term of a Congress ends on March 
4th, the second session of that Congress must end on that 
date and it is therefore called the "Short session" in con- 
trast with the first session which, as it does not have to 
close March 4th, is called the "Long session". It is inter- 
esting to note that the representatives do not meet, unless 
a special session of Congress is called, until about thirteen 
months after they are voted for. The representatives of 
the 58th Congress were voted for in November 1902. 
Their term began March 4th, 1903, when the second session 
of the 67th Congress closed. If there is no special session, 
they will not meet till the first Monday in December 1903. 
The "Long session" of the 58th Congress will then begin. 

Section V. Clause 1. Each house shall be judge of the 
elections^ returns, and qualifications of its own members, and 
a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; 
but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and 
may be authorized to compel the attendance of ubsent mem- 
bers, in such manner and under such penalties, as each house 
may provide. 

A new member presents his credentials in the house to 
which he has been elected and the house determines 
whether or not he shall take his seat. If as many as fifteen 
meet, but not enough to make a quorum, absent members 
may be arrested by the sergeant-at-arms and compelled to 
attend. 

Clause 2. Each house may determine the rules of its 
proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, 
with the concurrence of two thirds, exp^l a member. 

Every deliberative body is self-governing. There must 
be rules and penalties even in organizations as august as 



CIVIIi GOVERNMENT. 

the Senate and the House of Representatives. Even there, 
men are often prone to ignore the rights of opponents; 
even there, men lose their tempers sometimes to the ex- 
tent of exchanging blows; even there, a few men have 
been expelled for objectionable conduct. Under Mr. Thomas 
B. Reed's Speakership an important change was made in 
the rules for determining a quorum. It used to be that 
those who refused *o vote were not counted. A member 
could debate on any question and, by refusing to vote, have 
himself considered absent as far as a quorum was con- 
cerned, and could thus obstruct legislation. The chief pur- 
pose of rules is to facihtate business. Mr. Reed insisted 
on counting the non-voters and this has become estab- 
lished as the legal method of procedure. 

Clause 3. Each house shall keep a journal of its pro- 
ceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting 
such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy, and the 
yeas and nays of the members of either house on any question 
shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered on 
the journal. 

Secrecy is not consistent with our kind of government. 
The people should be able to know what their servants are 
doing. They may know through the press, the journal of 
proceedings, or by actual attendance. Voting is usually 
viva voce, unless the result is doubtful, when a rising vote 
is taken. When the vote is by yeas and nays each mem- 
ber's name is called and he responds with yes or no and a 
record is made of every vote. 

Clause 4. Neithjsr house, during the session of Congress, 
shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than 
three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two 
houses shall be sitting. 

Though there are two houses, yet they are one body, 
the Congress, and the two work for a single purpose, 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 

National legislation. Therefore, as a matter of course, 
they should not act without reference to each other on the 
question of adjournment. 

Section VI. Clause 1. The senators and representatives 
shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascer- 
tained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United 
States. They shall in all eases, except treason, felony, and 
breach of the peace, be priviliged from arrest during their 
attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in 
going to and returning from the same; and for any speech 
or debate in either house, they shall not be questioned in any 
other place. 

Members of Congress receive a salary of $5000 a year 
and a mileage rate of ten cents for every milejiecessarily 
travelled in going to and returning from each regular ses- 
sion. They are also allowed clerk hire and some other 
incidentals are furnished. The speaker of the House and 
the president pro-tempore of the Senate receive $8000 
each, the same as the members of the cabinet 

If it were not for this guarantee of freedom from arrest 
members of Congress might be legally detained for matters 
trivial in comparison with their work as national legis- 
lators; for example, they might be summoned as witnesses 
or to serve on a jury. They are not protected from arrest 
for a criminal offense. The provision, that members shall 
be free to say what they please within their respective 
houses, insures them from intimidation from without 
against slander suits. Immoderate language or sentiments, 
in either house, may be rebuked by the house and the 
speaker restrained from further objectionable expressions. 

Clause 2. No senator or representative shall, during the 
time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office 
under the authority of the United States, which shall have 
been created, or the emoluments thereof shall have been in- 
creased, during such time; and no person holding any officg 



CTVIL GOVERXMENT, 

under the United States shall be a member of either house 
during his continuance in office. 

It is seen from this clause that a senator or represent- 
ative cannot assist in creating a new office or in increasing 
the salary of an old one with the expectation of reaping 
the benefit himself during nis term in Congress. There is 
nothing to prevent his accepting such an office after the 
expiration of his term. A person holding an office under 
the U. S. government must resign it upon taking his seat in 
Congress. He would not have to resign a state office. 

Section VII. Clause 1. All bills for raising revenue 
shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate 
may propose or concur with amendments, as on other bills. 

This is analagous to the plan in England whereby the 
House of Commons, the people's house, originates bills for 
raising revenue. "Raising revenue" in this clause is con- 
strued to mean, levying taxes. This properly belongs to 
the house which is in closest touch with the people who 
must pay the taxes. 

Clause 2. Every bill which shall have passed the House 
of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a 
law, be presented to the President of the United States; if he 
approve, he shall sign it, but if not, he shall return it, with 
his objections, to that house in which it shall have originated, 
who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and 
proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration, two 
thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, 
together with the objections, to the other house, by which it 
shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds 
of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases 
the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and naySj 
and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill 
shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. 
If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten 
days ( Sunday excepted ) after it shall have been presented to 
Mm, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had 



CIVIL GOinBRyMEXT. 

signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent 
its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 

Bills, except those for raising revenue, may originate in 
either house. Suppose a bill originates in the Senate; it is 
passed by a majority. It is sent to the House of Repre- 
sentatives. If it does not get a majority vote there the bill 
is said to be "killed". But suppose it gets a majority vote 
in the House. It is then sent to the President. He signs it 
and it is a law. Suppose he does not sign it; he sends it back 
with a statement of his objections to the house in which it 
or'glnated, in this case the Senate. The Senate considers 
his objections and votes on the bill again. This time if it 
gets a two-thirds vote in the Senate, it, and theipbjections, 
are sent to the House of Representatives. If it gets a two 
thirds vote there it becomes a law notwithstanding the 
President's veto. But suppose the president neither signs 
the bill nor returns it; it becomes a law if he keeps it ten 
. days, not counting Sundays, providing Congress does not 
adjourn within ten days. If it does, the bill does not be- 
come a law. And, as this is equivalent to a veto, and the 
president has virtually "pocketed" the bill, it is called a 
"pocket veto". 

The veto power was not used much by the early presi- 
dents. The later ones have used it more freely. The king 
of England has the power of absolute veto, but this power 
has not been exercised by any English sovereign since 1707 
in the reign of Queen Anne. The veto power is considered 
a check on hasty legislation. There are, then, three 
processes by which a bill may be passed. (1) It may re- 
ceive a majority vote in each house and be signed by the 
President. (2) It may receive a majority vote in each 
house, be vetoed by the President and repassed by a two 
thirds vote in each house. (3) It may receive a majority 



CIVIIi GOVEByMENT. 

vote in each house, be sent to the President and be kept 
by him for ten days during the continuation of the session. 
Clause 3. Every order ^ resolution^ or vote to which the 
concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may 
be necessary (except on a question of adjournment ) shall be 
presented to the President of the United States; and before the 
same shall take effect^ shall be approved by him, or being 
disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the 
Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules 
and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 

This clause prevents the passage of bills under the 
name of order or resolution. But a concurrent resolution, 
like adjournment, and some others not to be taken as law, 
do not need the President's signature. A resolution to 
propose an amendment to the constitution would not 
require his signature. 

Sec. Vni. Clause 1. The Congress shall have power to 
lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the 
debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare 
of the United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall 
be uniform throughout the United States; 

The taxes levied by the National government are prac- 
tically all indirect. Duties are taxes on goods imported. 
Excises are taxes on certain manufactured articles, e. g., 
intoxicating hquors and tobacco. According to the second 
part of this clause there must be no discrimination against 
any part of the country. Taxes levied by Congress must 
be uniform. 

Clause 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United 
States; 

When the government manufactures paper money, 
such as "greenbacks" and treasury notes, and uses it in 
paying its expenses, it really borrows, because each bill is 
a promise to pay and those promises must be redeemed 
sometime. The most common method of borrowing money 

8 



for national purposes is by issuing government bonds, 
which are promises to pay at a certain time, usually a good 
many years hence, and the holder of the bond draws inter- 
est from the government. The last bonds issued draw two 
per cent interest. U. S. bonds are exempt from t^-xation. 

Clause 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, 
and am,ong the several States, and with the Indian tribes; 

Before the constitution was adopted the several states 
made regulations governing both foreign and inter -state 
commercial relations. Great confusion resulted. Com- 
merce could not be promoted under such a system. Now 
we have uniform regulations, uniform duties on imports 
and uniform inter-state regulations. 

The Indian tribes are wards of the nation. They 

should, therefore, be cared for by the nation, and this is 

done even where a tribe lives entirely within the borders of 

a state. ' 

Clause 4, To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, 
and uniforvfi laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout 
the United States; 

An aUen who wishes to become a citizen must, at least 
two years before applying for final papers, declare, in the 
presence of a court, his intention to become a citizen and 
to renounce allegiance to any other country. When he 
applies to the court for his final papers it must be clearly 
shown that the applicant has duly declared his intention, 
that he has resided in the U. S. continuously for five years 
and in the state where application is made one year, and 
that during his residence here he has behaved as a man of 
good moral character, attached to the principles of the 
Constitution of the U. S. and well disposed to the good 
order and happiness of the same. 

He must also take the oath of allegiance and renounce 
forever all fideUty to any. foreign state. Children of 



CiVIt, COVERNMENT. 

naturalized parents, if under twenty- one when their par- 
ents became citizens, are considered citizens. 

Children born abroad to citizens of the U. S. are con- 
sidered citizens. 

If a naturalized citizen goes back to his native country 
and resides there two years, he loses his citizenship here. 
Under the bankruptcy law of 1898 a man who is hope- 
lessly in debt may file in the U. S. District Court a petition 
asking that he be considered a bankrupt. What property 
he has may be divided among his creditors and he may be 
freed from any further obligation and may start his bus- 
iness Uf e anew. The privilege of recourse to this law is 
often abused by those who are more nearly solvent than 
they pretend to be. 

Clause 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, 
and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and 
measures; 

The trade of the country could have no stabihty with- 
out a uniform currency and this can be secured only 
through national management. 

The coining of money does not include the printing of 
paper money, but only the stamping of metals having in- 
trinsic value. 

Congress can regulate the value of money to a certain 
extent by deciding the relative amount of gold and silver 
to be used in the respective coins. But their value fluctu- 
ates with the changing value of gold and silver bullion; 
that is, the purchasing power changes as the market value 
of bulhon changes. 

Uniformity is a necessity in weights and measures. If 
the metric system should be adopted, it would be by act of 
Congress. There is a good deal of advocacy of this as an in- 
ternational system. l)oubtless considerable inconvenience 
and dissatisfaction would follow its adoption in this country. 

10 



CiVlIi GOVERNMENT. 

Clause 6. To provide for the punishment of counter- 
feiting the securities and current coin of the United States ; 

All the coins, all the paper money, bonds, internal 
revenue and postage stamps, money orders and some other 
papers are under this clause protected against counterfeit- 
ing. Any one who makes or passes counterfeit coin is 
hable to a fine not to exceed $5000, and to imprisonment not 

to exceed ten years. 

Clause 7. To establish post-offices and post-roads; 

The postal system is under the management of the 
Postmaster- General. Their are four assistant Postmasters- 
General. All postmasters who receive more^ than $1000 
per year are appointed by the President for foi|p years. 
All others are appointed by the Postmaster- General. 

Rates of postage were much higher in the early history 
of the Department than at present. 

The plan of rural free delivery is the most important 
innovation of recent times in the postal system. This 
feature has advanced from an experimental stage in 1896 
to its present condition of practicability, which leaves no 
room for doubt as to its success. It will have great influ- 
ence towards popularizing agricultural hfe. The income 
from the postal system is not sufficient to pay expenses. The 
deficit is met by an appropriation. Thus the people pay 
for the service rendered. All roads, whether rail or 
wagon, over which mail is carried under the authority of 
the Post-oflBlce Department, are post roads. 

Congress may not only establish post roads, but may 
build them or assist in building them, as it did in the case 
of the Union Pacific and Central Pacific railways. 

Clause 8. To promote the progress of science and useful 
arts, by securing, for limited times, to authors and inventors 
the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries, 

11 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 

Authors are given the exclusive right to control the 
publication of their productions by copyright issued to 
them under the authority of Congress. In hke manner 
patents are issued to inventors. Through this protection 
men are encourarged to employ their wits in devising 
things new, useful, and attractive, because the prize of 
great gain is the probable result. 

A copyright is obtained from the Librarian of Congress 
and the total fee required is one dollar. It is valid for 
twenty- eight years and may be renewed for fourteen 
years more. An inventor seeking a patent must send a 
f uU description of the article invented to the Patent Office, 
and must swear that he believes himself to be the first 
maker of such an article. When the inventor makes ap- 
plication he must pay fifteen dollars. When the patent is 
issued he must pay twenty dollars. The patent is valid for 
seventeen years, but may be extended for seven years 
more. The total fee for the extension is one hundred 
dollars. 

Clause 9, To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme 
Court; 

The judicial department of tiie U. S. includes the fol- 
lowing courts. One Supreme Court. Nine Circuit Courts 
of Appeal. U. S. Circuit Courts divided into nine judicial 
circuits and holding court at least once a year in each 
state. Eighty-three District Courts. One U. S. Court of 
Claims. 

Clause 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies 
committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of 
nations; 

When a ship^s crew follows the business of robbing 
other ships, they are pirates and may be put to death by 
any nation into whose power they may fall. 

12 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 

Any capital crime or penitentiary offense is a "felony.'' 
By "high seas" is meant the parts of the oceans sub- 
ject to no particular nation, but to all. The high seas 
begin three miles from low water mark along the coast of 
the U. S. 

International law is referred to in the latter part of 
this clause. 

Clause 11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and 
reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and 
water; 

In a monarchy the power to declare war usually belongs 
to the sovereign. In a republic it as fitting that this power, 
upon the use of which hang such fearful results belong to the 
wisest, and supposedly the most prudent deliberative body 
in the nation. In case of a warlike emergency, when Con- 
gress is not in session, the president, as Commander-in - 
chief of the U. S. forces, may take such actions as is nec- 
essary for defense without waiting for Congress to convene. 

Letters of marque and reprisal are papers issued to 
private persons authorizing them to go beyond the borders 
of the country and capture vessels belonging to the enemy. 
Such prizes, as they are called, are usually sold and the 
money received distributed among the crew of the ship 
which made the capture. Vessels thus commissioned are 
called privateers. The leading nations of the world do not 
now look with favor upon this method of warfare. 

Clause 12. To raise and support armies, but no appro- 
priation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than 
two years; 

Congress had not this power under the Articles of 
Confederation; but could only indicate to the states the 
number of men needed from each and then wait for the 
states to enlist them. It is strange how such results were 
attained under this illogical plan. Limiting the time for 

13 



CrVIIi GOVERNMENT. 

which appropriations may be made limits the hfe of the 
existing army organizations to that time, for it cannot 
exist without money. Under this plan there is no danger 
of military rule, for every two years the matter is referred 
to the people and they, through their representatives, de- 
clare their sovereign will. 

Clause 13. To provide and maintain a navy, 
It is well for a nation to have a strong navy in peace 
as well as in war; a citizen army may be called into the 
field in a very short time, but ships cannot be built quickly; 
andjin these days of rapidly shifting scenes, emergencies are 
hkely to arise at any moment, requiring immediate naval 
action. Congress is not limited in making appropriations 
for the navy. Doubtless one reason for this is that a navy 
is not likely to control affairs of government. 

Clause 14. To make rules for the government and 
regulation of the land and naval forces: 

There is a list of one hundred and twenty-eight articles 
for the government of officers and men in the army. There 
is a similar set of rules for the navy. The punishments 
inflicted are in proportion to the offense. Capital punish- 
ment may be inflicted by court-martial, but the consent of 
the President must be obtained. 

Clause 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to 
execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and 
repel invasions; 

"All citizens, and those who have declared their inten- 
tion to become such, between the ages of eighteen and 
forty -five", are the militia. Instead of depending upon a 
standing army and being taxed to death to support it, the 
citizens stand ready to do their own fighting, when neces- 
sary. The militia was called upon in 1794 to suppress the 
Whisky Rebellion; in 1812 against Great Britain; and three 
evies were made during the Civil War. 



14 



CIVIL GOVERyMElSrT. 

Clause 16. To provide for organizing, arming and dis- 
ciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as 
may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving 
to the States respectively the appointment of the officers, and 
the authority of training the militia according to the discipline 
prescribed by congress; 

A part of the militia is organized by the states, respec- 
tively, and drilled so as to become efficient in quelling local 
disturbances, and valuable as a reserve subject to the 
national call. 

Clause 1 7. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases 
whatsoever over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) 
as may, by cession of particular States, and the acceptance 
of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United' 
States^ and to exercise like authority over all places j^rchased 
by the consent of the Legislature of the State in which the same 
shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock- 
yards, and other needful buildings; — and 

The District of Columbia is governed by a board of 
three commissioners appointed by the president under the 
direction of Congress. Congress makes the laws for the 
district, thus acting as a legislature. The subordinate 
officers are selected b}^ the commission. The commission 
mak6s an estimate each year of the amount of money 
needed for the District, and Congress appropriates half the 
amount from the national treasury, and the rest is raised by 
taxation within the district. 

By having entire control of the capitol and its sur- 
roundings, Congress can arrange for its own protection. 
Otherwise it would have to depend upon a state and might 
not be adequately protected. When the Capital was at 
Philadelphia, some soldiers, who wanted their pay, were 
about to attack the Continental Congress, and the state 
failing to furnish protection, the Congress moved to 
Princeton, N. J. 

IS 



'■■^■m 



CIVIIi GOVERNMENT. 

Residents of the District of Columbia have no vote in 
national elections. 

Clause 18. To make all laws which shall he necessary 
and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, 
and all other powers vested by this constitution in the govern- 
ment of the United States, or in any department or officer there- 

of; 

John Fiske says, in commenting upon this clause: 
"This may be called the elastic clause of the Constitution; 
it has undergone a good deal of stretching for one purpose 
and another, and, as we shall presently see, it was a pro- 
found disagreement in the interpretation of this clause that 
after 1789 divided the American people into two great po- 
litical parties. Hamilton's measures as secretary of the 
treasury embodied an entire system of pubhc policy and 
the opposition to them resulted in the formation of two 
political parties into which, under one name or another, 
the American people have at, most times been divided. 
Hamilton's opponents, led by Jefferson, objected to his 
his principal measures that they assumed powers in the 
national government which were not granted to it by the 
Constitution. Hamilton then fell back upon the elastic clause 
of the Constitution, and maintained that such powers were 
implied in it. Jefferson held that this doctrine of 'im- 
plied powers' stretched the elastic clause too far. He held 
that the elastic cliause ought to be construed strictly and 
narrowly; Hamilton held that it ought to be construed 
loosely and liberally. Hence the names 'strict-construc- 
tionist' and 'loose-constructionist', which mark perhaps the 
most profound and abiding antagonism in the history of 
American politics. Practically all will admit that Jjhe 
elastic clause, if construed strictly, ought not to be con- 
strued too narrowly; and if construed liberally, ought not 

16 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 

to be construed too loosely. Neither party has been con- 
sistent in applying its principles, but in the main, we can 
call Hamilton the founder of the Federalist party, which 
has had for its successors the National RepubUcans of 1828, 
the Whigs of 1833 to 1852, and the Republicans of 1854 to 
the present time ; while we can call Jefferson the founder 
of the party which called itself Republican from about 1792 
to about 1828, and since then has been known as the Dem- 
ocratic party". 

Sec. IX. Clause 1. The migration or importation of 
such persons as any of the States now existing shall think 
proper to admit^ shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior 
to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax 
or duty may be im^posed on such importation, not exceeding 
ten dollars for each person. 

There were three states. North Carolina, South Car- 
olina and Georgia, which wanted to continue the importa- 
tion of slaves. The others desired to aboUsh it; this clause 
was put in as a compromise. The word slave seems to 
have been distasteful, so the word "persons" was used 
instead. 

The tax provided for was never levied. This whole 
clause is, of course, of no effect now. 

Clause 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall 
not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion 
the public safety may require it. 

The words "habeas Corpus" are latin words and mean 
"y6u may have the body". By this writ any one who is 
imprisoned or forcibly detained on some pretext, may de- 
mand that he be taken immediately into the presence of a 
judge, and, if suflBicient cause cannot be shown for the de- 
tention of the prisoner, he must be released. This is one 
of the oldest and most important guarantees of persona 
liberty. 

17 



CIVIL. GOVERNMENT. 

The clause does not say who shall have the power to 
suspend the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus. In 
1863 Congress passed an act empowering the President to 
suspend the privilege, whenever it is necessary for the 
public good. It was suspended during the civil war. If it 
were not suspended in time of rebellion, prisoners held by 
the government might be able, on legal grounds, to secure 
their release. 

Clause 3. No bill of attainder or ex-post-facto law shall 
be passed. 

A bill of attainder was a conviction of an accused per- 
son and an infliction of the death penalty without a judicial 
trial. The legislative department of a government has no 
right to assume the prerogatives of the judicial. 

The words "ex post facto" are Latin and mean '*after 
the deed". 

In brief, this means the apphcation of a law or an in- 
creased penalty in a law, to an act committed before the 
law was passed. Such a law would be unconstitutional. 

A criminal can only be punished according to the law 
existing when the crime is committed. 




18 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 
OUTLINE 'QUIZZES. 

(THIRD PAPER.) 

1. Define impeachment and outline the procesa. 

2. Distinguish between the "long session*' and the 
"short session" of Congress. 

3. What salary do members of Congress receive? 

4. Can you mention any limitation to the right of free 
speech in Congress? 

6. What are the successive steps in the passing of a 
bill? 

6. How does the government usually borrow money? 

7. By what process may an alien become a citizen? 

8. What is the bankruptcy law of 1898? 

10. What can you say of the development of the postal 
system? 

11. How is a copyright obtained? A patent? 

12. Enulnerate the U. S. Courts. 

13. Define piracy; felony. What is meant by "high 
seas?" 

14. To whom does the power to declare war belong? 

15. Distinguish between the organized and the unor- 
ganized militia. 

16. How is the District of Columbia governed? 

17. Which clause of the Constitution is called the 
"Elastic Clause?" Why? 

18. Can you find the word "slave" in-the Constitution? 

19. What is a writ of habeas corpus? 



19 



DIDACTICS. 

(THIRD PAP«R.) 
ICDUCATIONAI, PSYCHOI^OGY. 

Psychology is the science of mental phenomena. It 
is the science that deals with mind; that undertakes to ex- 
plain how the mind acts. As an abstract philosophical 
science it has no place in this manual, but in so far as it 
may be applied to the solutions of problems in the education 
of the child, it is of the utmost importance to the teacher. 
The successful farmer is the one who knows the nature of 
of the soil he tills, the successful mechanic, merchant or 
professional man knows fully the laws controlling the 
things which he works. The teacher who works witn mind 
must know the laws of mental action, or in other words he 
must know psychology. 

It is the purpose of this paper to set forth briefly a few 
pretty generally accepted facts as to the working of the 
human mind which should be recognized by every teacher. 

When a human being enters this world, he knows 
nothing about it, to him it is absolutely new and his first 
business is to explore it, and then to conquer it. But how 
can he do it? Is he entirely helpless? Can we help him? 
We can help him very little, but nature has provided him 
with senses and has sent out from the brain to all parts of 
the body, — ^to the eyes, ears, nose, fingers, etc. — little nerves 
capable of receiving impressions and carrying them back 
to the brain. By means of these impressions man comes 
to know the world. Nature is at hand with innumerable 
stimuli with which the nerves are excited and messages 
carried to the brain. Before the child can know, there 
must be sensations. The first duty then of the teacher is 



PIDACTICS. 

to excite in the child sensations about the subject to be 
learned. These sensations make the child directly con- 
scious of the action of the outer world on the mind, and at the 
same time indicate to him the activity of the mind caused by 
the sensations. When the mind responds to a sensation in 
such a way as to make its owner recognize the object ex- 
citing- the sensation, then we have a perception. By 
perceptions the child learns to know the world, but all do 
not perceive alike. This is because a perception in not an 
external impression thrust upon the mind, but is the im- 
pression after it has been acted upon by the mind, and since 
no two minds act in the same way, so no two perceptions are 
exactly alike. The same object of perception will indeed 
seldom yield the same ideas in the minds of different people. 
Take for instance the word "ink." I^et twenty people write 
the first perception the spoken work *'ink" gave them, and 
if the people are of various vocations it is safe to say, that 
no two perceptions will be alike. So one brings into con- 
sciousness the material of which it is made, to another the 
ink spot on the floor, and to still another, the written page, 
etc. What the child already knows, or has experienced 
plays a very important part in perception. The law of mind 
in grasping the objects of the outer world, has been stated 
thus: '*Tlie mind grasps the tilings of the outer world 
with the aid of what it has experienced, felt, learned 
md acquired hitherto in the same direction." Hence a 
perception is not a simple act as one might think, it is not 
merely a becoming conscious of sensations, but it is rather 
the fusion of the content of the sensation with similar ideas 
and feeling already existing in the mind. This act of 
fusion is apperception, and this psychical process is of 
the greatest importance to our mental life. It is important, 
then, for the teacher to grasp the meaning and significance 
of these three mental processes, — sensations, percep- 
tions and apperceptions, — and to learn to control them. 



DIDACTICS. 

Growth. — The powers of the mind as well as of the 
body, and spirit grow ^by use. The young- athlete does 
not gain his great strength suddenly, but only after 
continued, and often long continued practice. Hence the 
teacher needs to bear in mind, that the mind acquires 
power by continued exercise, and that it is constantly 
striving for more power. The boy that jumps eight feet, 
can never get to jump ten feet, by continually jumping eight 
feet. He jumps ten by striving to do so. So the mind is 
constantly reaching out for the new -unexplored fields, and 
it is the business of the teacher to give it exercise in these 
new fields and not to permit it to stagnate. 

Liearning must be the act of the pupil amd not 
tliat of the teacher. From the law of perception it 
follows, that mental activity and growth must come within. 
The part the teacher can take, is to cause the pupil to re- 
ceive sensations about the subject to be learned, and to 
prevent him from receiving sensations about other things 
at the same time. If the teacher can accomplish these two 
things, he has the attention of the pupil fastened on the 
subject under consideration and mental growth follows 
without further effort on the part of the teacher. A tired 
teacher once approached Mr. Jay Gould and asked him what 
he should do in order to be a success in his profession. Mr. 
Gould asked him what his profession was, and upon being 
told replied, "let the other fellow do the work." No better 
advice can be given a teacher. Remember, that the pupil 
must do the learning, and that to do it he must put forth 
effort and far better results will folllow than if the teacher 
tries to do the work for the pupil. 

From the Old to the New. An important law of 
mental development is that the new must be connected with 
the old. When a new subject arises, the first duty of a 



PIDACTICS. 

teacher is to relate it to the old by as many links as possi- 
ble. If there are no connections, then the class is not ready 
for the new subject and the teacher should assign a new 
topic related to the old and the new, and thus form connect- 
ions. Uqually important is the law that the mind proceeds 
from to concrete to the abstract, from the particular to the 
general. The child has an idea of John, or Mary long- be- 
fore he has the perception of brother or sister. The teacher 
who fails to perceive and obey this natural law is as much 
doomed to failure as would be the farmer who would at- 
tempt to raise apples under ground. 




DIDACTICS PROPER. 

"Knowledge is power, but like any other power, it is 
only valuable when imparted to others". 

Didactics, ( Greek, — didasko — to teach ) . 
The influence, prosperity and perpetuity of a State 
depends, under Providence, upon the morality and intelli- 
gence, the prosperity and happiness of its people. The 
church and family have, or are supposed to have, the 
especial supervision of the child in the moral sphere; to the 
schools is entrusted the more special duty of training- the 
intellectual faculties. It was a wise old Spartan teacher 
who exclaimed: "I^et me train the boys of Greece and I 
will rule the world.'* On being asked how this would give 
him such power, he answered "because the boys ru% their 
mothers, the mothers rule their husbands, and the men of 
Sparta and Athens govern the world." He had a mighty 
conception of the oflSce of the pedagogue, ( leader of 
boys. ) 

The founders of our nation were not ignorant of the 
influence which education would exert in promoting the 
welfare of the people. The colonies of New Kngland estab- 
lished, almost as soon as they were founded, a system of 
schools for the education of their children. As had been 
the custom in England, the minister of the parish church 
was also the teacher of the youths; if the minister was 
superseded by another, he yielded his position as teacher to 
his successor. But in a short time this combination of 
duties was set aside, and educational affairs were no longer 
under the control of the priest. Thus did those stern 
colonists begin, at an early date, the separation of Clmrcli 
and State. 



DIDACTICS. 

Memory, — the faculty by which is retained the knowl- 
edge of past events, sensations, etc. How this faculty is 
exercised no one can tell. The latest theory is that as a 
sensation appeals to the mind a cell is formed for its 
reception. The power to recall the knowledge of past 
events, of persons, impressions of pain or pleasure, etc., is 
independent of sensatation or perception. This faculty we 
classify as Reproduction. Reproduced images are never 
as strongly marked as the percept, or first impression 
made upon the memory. 

Attention and Association are valuable aids in 
educating the memory. That which appeals most strongly 
to our attention, will excite most strongly our interest, 
and make a proportionately stronger impression upon the 
memory. As we understand more clearly that which we 
have felt or seen for ourselves than that which has simply 
been described to us, so can we more easily reproduce its 
image. The association of circumstances, or events of 
like nature, is often sufficient to recall that which was 
apparently hidden under the fog of forgetf ulness. Upon 
this is based the various systems of Mnemonics ( aids to 
memory. ) 

The cultivation of the memory is not such an exact 
science, that definite rules susceptible of universal applica- 
tion can be given. But a few general principles may be 
applicable in the case of all persons, to assist them in their 
efforts to improve that faculty which has been imparted, in 
some degree, to all. As in the physical, so in the mental 
domain of life. 

Repetition of that which is to be remembered is as 
necessary as the repetition in gymnastics, or an exercise 
upon the key-board of a piano. Some teachers have the 



PIPACTICS. 

habit of requiring- their pupils to repeat an exercise of 
memory ten, or fifteen, or more times. The pupil should 
repeat until he knows, if that is possible. 

Use, or custom, trains the memory. In manual train- 
ing", the frequent use of a muscle causes it, in time, to 
respond almost insensibly to the will. So in the use of the 
memory. It is often the case that a child, when called 
upon to repeat some part of a lesson, will reply: "I cannot 
recollect," or "I forget." Such a pupil should often be 
required to "commit to memory" a short poem which will 
excite his interest and which he will understand, for — 

Understanding is an aid in training- the memory. 
We lose interest in what we do not understand, 'linterest 
being lost, attention being weakened, the percept is not 
sufficently vivid to impress the memory. Hence arises the 
difficulty in teaching a child whose physical activity is so 
great that it seems almost impossible to excite his interest. 

How to excite interest, is a question which often meets 
a teacher. Are you, the teacher, interested? If so, the 
course you will pursue will be determined largely by your 
knowledge of the character of your pupils. The faculty of 
exciting in a pupil, interest in his work, is somewhat of a 
personal magnetic quality. Often the desired interest can 

be called out by exciting to some degree the imaginative 
faculty which exists in all minds. 

Imagination, the forming of images, is not confined 
to the past; it deals also with the present, and reaches 
forward to the future, while memory can only reproduce 
the images of the past. Imagination has a strong influence 
in shaping lives. Those who have inscribed their names 
high in the scrolls of fame — warriors, statesmen, philan. 
thropists, authors, sculptors, painters — were spured to their 
efforts by the image of honor to be gained by success. 
Imagination, then, may properly be used by the teacher in 
directing the channels of his pupils thought. 



131DACTICS. 

One caution should be borne in mind in using- the 
memory. The memory is strengthened only by what it 
retains; it is weakned by what it acquires only for tem- 
porary advantages or use. Pupils, — and teachers also, — 
should be discouraged from "cramming," storing the 
memory for the time being with isolated facts, simply for 
the temporary purpose of obtaining high ''per cents," or 
"passing examinations." The days of Gradgrihd are over. 

Conception, a general idea — or concept, is the idea 
in our minds answering to a general name, as soldier — 
Sui,i,Y. 

Differing from a perception, or percept, it requires 
the formation of an idea embracing any characteristics in 
order to form an image which may be called a class image 
instead of an individual one. Such an image can be formed 
only by considering the several characteristics belonging 
to one of a class, comparing these with those pertaining to 
another of the same class, and then combining the several 
distinct impressions thus obtained into one general idea. 
For instance, a young child can have no general concept of 
a familiar object, as a cat, until he is of age sufficient to 
enable him to compare one cat with another. 

Concepts are classed as general or abstract, the one 
requiring in its formation the association of an object, as 
"man"; the other as "manly" being separated from the 
image in the mind of the object, and relating only to the 
quality. 

Since the comprehension of the abstract is a much 
more difficult mental process than is that of the concrete, 
it follows that in a child's early school life instruction 
should be given to a great extent by object lessons in con- 
nection with the study of books. Interest would be more 

8 



DIDACTICS. 

readily excited, attention would be more close, perception 
would become more vivid, and memory more retentive than 
in the case of one whose teaching was confined to the con- 
crete alone. 

The Reasoning Faculty. The memory may be 
trained into so effective a condition that it may become a 
vertiable storehouse of facts, related and unrelated; imagi- 
nation may be so vivid that it needs not even the basis of an 
image, or concept, to start it on high revel through the 
dreams of the past, the present, or the future; the repro- 
ductive faculty of the mind may at the dictaticu of the will 
bring into the mental vision all the concepts which associa- 
tions of the present will suggest, and yet all the^ be but 
waste lumber. To become of use in either the mental or 
material world, these faculties must be brought under the 
subjection of a still higher mental power — the empire of 
Reason. 

Whether man alone of all created beings having their 
homes upon the earth is endowed with the reasoning faculty, 
or whether he must share the claim to its possession with 
the lower animal creation whom he calls brutes, is one of 
those metaphysical questions which it would be profitless 
to discuss in a work of this kind. There seems to be evi- 
dences that the power of reasoning is possessed to some 
degree by those animals which have become the helpers 
and the friends of man through many generations of 
domesticity. The house dog and the horse may be cited as 
examples. Do they not often show in their actions the 
apparent results of the exercise of the reasoning faculty? 

What is reason? It is that faculty of the mind which 
enables us to collate, compare, and combine facts stored in 
memory's cells with each other, and from such mental act 
to deduce the relations of one proposition with another, and 



DIDACTICS. 

thus by a connected train of thought reach a definate con- 
clusion. This conclusion may be wrong-, because of 
some defect in the train by which the conclusion was 
reached. A true process of reasoning will consist of three 
parts, — called in I^ogic, the Major Premise, the Minor 
Premise, and the Conclusion. There are two modes 
of reasoning, — the inductive, and the deductive. 

Inductive ( in-duco, to lead into, ) reasoning is that 
mode by which, from the examination of many specific 
facts, we are led into the formation of a general law. In 
mathematics we are led by the investigation and analysis 
of problems to form a general law which we style a Rule. 
By the deductive ( de, from, duco, to lead, ) mode of 
reasoning we trace from a general statement downward 
through a chain of propositions, until we reach a particular 
statement — one which is of importance in proving the truth 
of some previous statement. 

The reasoning powers of the mind cannot be said to be 
essentially equal in all minds. But they may be educated 
by a course of study especially adapted to that end; and 
this training may begin in the early days of a child's school 
life. Certain studies will be useful aids. History will 
train the mind to reason — if properly taught — from cause 
to effect, lyct a teacher take the cord upon which is hung 
the events of the Revolutionary War, — for instance, — and 
trace the underlying principal evident in the resistance to 
the Stamp Act down to the Declaration of Independence. 
The child will display not only greater interests in the 
study, but will find its power of reasoning more and more 
developed. '*Why should girls, who never expect to become 
surveyors, civil engineers, or teachers, study Geometry,'* 
is a question which parents often ask. The reply would be, 
because it trains the reasoning povi^ers,— not, of course, 

10 



DIDACTICS. 

if the teacher and student are satisfied with parrot-like 
recitations of the printed demonstrations, but when original 
demonstrations are required. 

Closely allied to Reason, — walking arm in arm with it,— 
is a faculty we call Judgment. It is that faculty by 
which, from a train of reasoning, we are enabled to form a 
correct conclusion. Only in the severe school of experience 
can the judgment be trained. There can be no royal road 
in its training. We recognize this fact in our use of the 
expressions, "he is a man of poor judgment;" "his judg. 
ment is unsound," etc. 

THE SCHOOI,. 

''Leisure" is the primary meaning of the Greek word, 
Schola, from which we derive our word school, hence we 
obtain by a species of deduction the definition of a school 
as a place in which there is leisure for the pursuit oi 
learned instruction, or a place in which the mind may 
be trained and knowledge acquired. By the term com- 
mon school we signify any institution of learning below 
the rank of a college or academy; when such an institu- 
tion is supported by the proceeds of taxation we style it 
a public school. 

A distinction — though it may not be considered an 
important one, — exists between the words scholar, 
student, and pupil, in their application to one engaged 
in the pursuit of knowledge, although in general they are 
used as synonyms. 

A scholar is one who has leisure to learn from a 
teacher, or one who has already acquired special knowl- 
edge of some branch. It is in this sense that we speak of 
a man as a fine Latin scholar, etc. A student, (studere, — 
to study, ) is one who pursues his investigations without 
the personal assistance of a teacher. The term is properly 



■1 



PIPACTICS. 

applied to one acquiring- any class of knowledge, hence we 
often use the expression "a student of human nature" in 
which no reference to books or recorded knowledge is 
intended. The term pupil ( pupillus-le, diminutive of 
pupus-a, — a boy, or girl ) is only to be used when we would 
refer not only to the instruction received from the teacher 
but also to the governmental oversight of the child exer- 
cised, hence it is strictly correct to speak of a child as a 
''bright scholar but a disobedient pupil." 

In forming the Constitution of the State of Illinois, 
wisdom was shown in the provisions made for the establish- 
ment and support of public schools. As all teachers do 
not have access to a copy of the school laws, we make here 
several extracts from the Constitution. To these will be 
added from time to time extracts from the school law, and 
from decisions of the higher Courts in this and other 
states upon legal points affecting the rights, etc., of 
teachers, pupils and parents, information not possessed, 
perhaps, by one teacher in a thousand unless he is also a 
lawyer. 

Articles, Section 1, of the Illinois Constitution reads 
as follows: The General Assembly shall provide a 
thorough and efficient system of free schools, whereby all 
children of this State may receive a good common school 
education. 

§ 2. All lands, moneys, or other property donated, 
granted or received for school, college, seminary or 
university purposes, and the proceeds thereof, shall be faith- 
fully applied to the objects for which such gifts or grants 
were made. 

§ 3. Neither the General Assembly nor any county, 
city, town, school district, or other public corporation, shall 
ever make any appropriation, or pay from any public fund 

12 



DIDACTICS. 

whatever anything- in aid of any church or sectarian pur- 
pose, or help to support or sustain any school, academy, 
seminary, college, university, or other literary or scientific 
institution controlled by any church or sectarian denomina- 
tion whatever; nor shall any grant or donation of land, 
money, or other personal property ever be made by the 

State or any such public corporation, to any church, or for 
any sectarian purpose.'* 

Under the provisions of this Article, all schools in the 
State have been organized. A common school, then, is 
a place in which pupils are assembled for the purpose of 
receiving instruction from and submitting to the 
government of a legally authorized teacher. As pupils 
they have certain relative rights. In no organized com- 
munity can any one claim absolute rights; even the right 
to life and liberty is confined by law within such limits as 
law may define. The pupil in a school room can claim 
only such rights as may be exercised without infringing 
upon the equal rights of others in their enjoyment oi 
school privileges. 

Order is one of the first essentials in securing the 
benefits of a school, and order is a personal objective to 
be secured by the personal effort of each one. Not alone 
in the^school room, but on the grounds and streets it is 
essential. A school which assembles, and which is dismissed 
at the tap of the bell, in a disorderly manner soon degene- 
rates in character, and fails to meet the end for which it 
was established. It must be remembered by pupils as well 
as by teachers, that the schools were established, not as 
charitable institutions, nor for the direct benefit of school 
officers, teachers and parents, but for the benefit of the 
children and the State. Since the school law opens the 
doors of the school room to any one between the ages of 

13 



DIDACTICS. 

six and twenty-one years, it follows that injustice would be 
wrought if the time of the teacher should be occupied in 
"keeping order." The older pupils should value their oppor- 
tunities at so high a rate that their influence and example 
would lead the younger pupils to exercise more self res- 
traint than they otherwise would be apt to do. 

Punctuality is a habit which the pupil may cultivate 
at school, if be has not all ready acquired it at home. The 
whole system of modern business is based upon time; every 
shop, every factory opens and closes its daily work by the 
clock, every railroad train must reach its various stations 
upon time; every bank demands promptness in financial 
transactions from its patrons; — these are but a few illustra- 
tions of the value given to the aphorism "time is money." 
The want of punctuality upon the part of pupils is very 
often the fault not of the child but of the parent, but the 
parent can be reached only through the child. It would be 
a just law that would inflict the punishment for tardiness 
in such cases upon the parent and let the child go free. 

Obedience is a requisite element in a child's training 
whether he be at home or in school. Children unaccus- 
tomed to the exercise of this virtue at home, are often a detri' 
ment to the order of a school and an injury to their school- 
mates. And not alone in this comparatively limited sphere 
is the effect of disobedient habits acquired in youth felt, 
but through all future life. It is neglect in exercising the 
power of self restraint which leads to lawlessness in all its 
degrees, and renders necessary the iron hand of law to 
restrain, at least, the tendency to crimes against society, 
and to anarchy. 

Studiousness is a quality of mind which it is neces- 
sary to cultivate from the moment a child begins its school 
life. By this is not meant only a diligent application to 

14 



DIDACTICS. 

books, because that is an impossibility, on the part of very 
young children who constitute the larger part of school 
membership. Older pupils who can pursue study without 
the constant aid of teachers must have acquired this habit 
in an earlier stage of school life, or the school will be 
regarded by them as truly **a place of leisure." But young 
children may be studious in their play; may be not only 
allowed but encouraged to draw pictures, make figures, 
letters, etc., on their slates; and the school day will not 
become a torture of weary hours long drawn out. Motion, 
doing something — is the natural proclivity of the healthy 
child. 

Neatness is largely a matter of imitation, b%t it is a 
habit which should receive great attention because it is a 
habit. Neatness in person may be required of all so far 
as water will insure it, neatness in dress is dependent upon 
the care and industry of the mother. A slovenly woman 
will rarely send to school any but a slovenly child. Here 
the teacher can work only by her own example and that of 
schoolmates. But neatness of the school desk, neatness of 
floor may be made matters of direct personal teaching and 
learning. But if a teacher's desk is so littered that it 
would require a tornado to clear it, if books and papers are 
thrown wherever it may be most expeditiously done and 
left in that condition, the pupil will have a just answer to 
any rebuke of the teacher for the want of neatness. 
"Example is stronger than precept" holds in the school- 
room as elsewhere. 

Truthfulness not alone in word but in act is absolu- 
tely necessary, if a pupil shall receive the greatest possible 
benefit from school life. There is a strong tendency to cul- 
tivate the very opposite quality in the habit indulged in by 
many teachers of calling upon the individual pupils at the 

IS 



DIDACTICS. 

beginning of a recitation to report the quality of their pre- 
paration. Rarely is any other reply heard than * "perfect," 
though during the progress of the recitation this high 
degree of knowledge proves to be one of the phantoms of 
the imagination. If the truthfulness and consequent 
honesty of the pupil is not a certainty, such methods as 
monthly written examinations become mere fancies as they 
are justly regarded by experienced teachers. 

Kindliness of feeling, and in actions towards school- 
mates should be inculcated by every means. Many annoy- 
ances, charges of unfairness on the part of teachers, and 
the like, often result from the unkindly dispositions of one 
or two pupils who stir up ill feeling and strife among their 
fellows. The habits of home life have much to do with the 
"school disposition" of the pupil, a disposition which must 
often be counteracted in its effects by the exercise of rigid 
authority. 

THE PARENTS IN SCHOOI,. 

The statutes of almost — if not entirely — all States con- 
tain sections definitive of the rights, powers and authority 
of persons engaged in professional or other occupations 
except that of teaching. "In loco parentis" is usually the 
brief summary of the teacher's authority and power, 
without an accompanying definition of those of the parent. 
Decisions of the Courts in various States bear only upon 
the immediate cases brought before them, and these 
decisions are colored more or less by the sentiments and 
customs of the community. What rights, it may be asked, 
may be claimed by parents in connection with the schools, 
which become for so many hours of the day the home of 
their children, and from what parental rights are they bar- 
red. As has been remarked in another place, all rights are 
relative and not absolute, in any position or condition of 

16 



DIDACTICS. 

civilized society. The parent has a right to demand that 
his child should receive from a teacher the same degree of 
attention, the same amount of pains-taking instruction, 
the same treatment in discipline as strict and impartial 
justice would demand, the same kindly treatment as is 
given to any other pupil. The affectionate solicitude of a 
parent follows the child to the school, especially in the 
early days of its school life. The parent then has the right 
to visit the school as often as his desires to do so may 
prompt him, and to spend as long a time as may be agree, 
able. Such visits should be welcomed by the teacher, and 
cordial invitations given to repeat them. The ''mother's 
chair" should be a part of the school furniture as^uch as 
the teacher's desk. It is entirely proper for the parent to 
suggest to a teacher any change which from the more 
intimate knowledge of the child's disposition, etc., possessed 
by the parent may prove beneficial. Teachers very often 
resent this as an intrusion or reflection upon their knowledge 
or judgment, but a wise teacher will listen, and prove the 
value of such hints before rejecting them. Parents by such 
action do not always mean criticism of the teacher, but 
earnest interest in the pupil. The health and future happi- 
ness of many a child has been severely strained, if not 
permanently injured by ignorance on the part of the teach- 
ers, especially of those so young in years that the position 
of pupil would befit them more than that of the teacher, — 
of physical disabilities of the child which only the mother 
could freely impart. 

There are teachers who cannot refrain from making 
in the presence of pupils remarks derogatory to their parents 
or friends. However little sensitiveness a child may seem 
to possess, reflections of any kind are not only entirely out 
of place in the school room, but will invariably excite in 

17 



DIDACTICS. 

the minds of the pupils a feeling of dislike for the teacher 
who indulges in them. Often do parents visit the school 
room to inquire into the facts in such cases; often, too, deter- 
mined beforehand to give the teacher a "piece of her mind," 
however little a "piece" can be spared. Even in such 
instances the parent should be received with courtesy, and 
frequently will leave not only with an apology to, but a 
friend of the teacher, though it must be confessed that 
sudden conversions are not as frequent as would be desir- 
able or possible, if the angelic symptoms were not often 
hidden by the angel of the schiool room. 

THE SCHOOIy HOUSE AND SCHOOI, ROOM. 

In the locating and building of school houses probably 
less attention is paid to architectural principles, to utility, 
and hygienic law, and to convenience than is shown in the 
structure of buildings designed for any other purpose. 

Churches, hotels, office buildings, residences are recog- 
nized as demanding such a choice in location, material and 
internal arrangement as will promise the most complete 
adaptation to the needs of the occupants. Accordingly we 
find that before entering upon the construction of a building 
of either of the classes specified, one who is supposed to 
have acquired some knowledge at least, if not expert skill 
in building is not only consulted, but is in most instances 
employed to draw a plan embodying all those features which 
seem to be required. But in locating and building a school 
house, very often the only question considered by the school 
officers is the cost. An architect who has given special 
attention to the construction of this class of buildings may 
be employed, especially in the larger cities and towns to 
submit plans and to superintend the mechanical part of 
the undertaking, and this without the special knowledge of 
all those questions which enter into the internal arrange- 

18 



DIDACTICS. 

ments. Probably not one teacher in a thousand is ever 
asked to give advice, or to express an opinion in reg-ard to the 
school house or school room, and probably not one teacher 
in a thousand is competent to give advice or even to draw a 
simple plan of a school room. Yet no one should be more 
interested in everything that pertains to the place in which 
not only he, — but the children, also, to whom he stands in 
loco parentis, — must spend so many hours of his life in giv- 
ing instruction and caring for the physical as well as for 
the mental training of his pupils, and they in gaining that 
which is to fit them for lives of future usefulness and 
happiness. 

School houses should be so located as to be easily access- 
ible by the ordinary routes of travel,— not placed, as is too 
often the case, especially in country districts, in some out of 
the way localty, simply because the land could be bought 
more cheaply, or because such a location would better suit 
some family of greater influence. The building should not 

be constructed without some regard to esthetic principles, 

a mere form of four walls pierced by a door and a few win- 
dows; neither should it make a profuse display, externally 
or internally of unnecessary ornamentation. Due regard 
should be paid to the safety of the inmates in case of fire 
endangering lives, each more valuable than the cost of 
many buildings. 

In Illinois, and several other States, the law requires all 
doors in buildings intended for general assemblages to 
open outwardly in order that there may be no hindrance to 
the escape of inmates. It also requires outside fire escapes 
to be attached to buildings exceeding a certain height. 
These laws are constantly violated, although a fine is 
Attached for neglect to comply with the law. 

19 



DIDACTICS. 

The question of vetitilation and proper heating of school 
houses is of more importance, perhaps, than when applied 
to dwelling" houses. This is because the inmates of the 
schoolroom are so much greater in number, and differ so 
much in their personal habits and clothing- from those of 
the dwellings, that the measures applicable in the latter 
structures would be insufficient in school rooms. 

But rarely do we find any arrangements, based upon 
scientific principles, for the ventilation of the school room. 
To throw open a door, or to open a window is, in most cases, 
the only means by which a change of air can be effected, 
and this mode is not available usually in cold weather 
When the open window is the only means, a shield to deflect 
the current of cold air toward the ceiling before it comes in 
contact with the person of the pupil may enable the teacher 
to control partially not only the heat of the room but the 
purity of the air as well. 

The seating* of a school room should not be done 
in a hap-hazard way. The desks should be so stationed 
that the light should not fall directly upon the eyes of the 
pupil, but should be directed upon the page of the books 
used from behind the pupil. It may be better in some cases 
that it should fall over the left, at other times over the 
right shoulder. The pupils should if possible face a blank 
wall, though in so doing the teacher may be required to 
face the light. But a teacher has a privilege denied to the 
the pupil, — that of changing his position in the room at his 
own will, and can thereby avoid too great exposure to the 
light. ^ Probably the greatest defect in any appurtenances 
of the school room is found in the walls. So much stress 
is now laid upon exercises apparent to the whole class of 
pupils, that it is rare to find a school room in which the 
walls are not covered entirely around the room for about 

20 



DIDACTICS. 

one-third of their height by what are appropriately called 
"blackboards." They are blackboards not only in color, 
but in their effects upon the light of the room, and their 
still more detrimental effects upon the eyes of the pupils. 
No one can fail to notice the obscurity of light in such a 
room, very marked upon dark days when the sun's light is 
hidden by clouds, an obscurity so dense that it is impossible 
to continue any work depending upon the use of the eyes. 

No one can walk the streets of our towns and cities and 
not be struck with the great number, not of adults of 
mature old age, but of young school children also whose 
appearance shows defective eyesight, even to the extent of 
wearing spectacles. The "sin" which has entai^d this 
necessity upon them in most cases is the sin of the black- 
boards and arrangements for light in the schoolroom. 
But by few is this cause of defective sight recognized. 
Few even of our oculists ever think of the schoolroom and 
its light when examining the eyes of a patient. Now it is 
not to be inferred that wall-boards are objectionable; it is the 
color. Nature gives the key to our optical laws as well as 
to other physical phenomena. Blue and green, gray and 
brown are the prevailing tints used by Nature's artist. The 
blue of heaven, the green of earth, the brown of the forest 
trees, and the gray of the rocks, are all restful to the tired 
eyes of man, as much as the songs of Nature's Choir is 
restful to his tired spirit. A light tint of green nearly the 
shade of the green carpet of grass, is almost an ideal color for 
wall-boards. It is by no means so injurious in its effects 
upon the optic nerves, nor does it require so great a strain 
upon the muscles of accommodation as black, while it adds 
to the cheerful appearance of the room, and furnishes a 
more artistic background to pictures which may be hung 
upon any portion of it. The suitability of the desks to the 

21 



DIDACTICS. 

size of the pupils by whom they are to be used, is a point to 
which sufficient thoug-ht is not given by those whose duty 
it is to superintend the selection of the school room furniture. 
With many a desk is a desk, and that is about the measure 
of their knowledge of the matter. Those who cannot 
endure a comparatively short period of an hour in church 
services without complaint, will yet compel their children 
to submit to the greater torture in the schoolroom of desks 
unsuitable in size and shape. A desk should be of such a 
height as would enable the occupant to rest the feet firmly 
on the floor; the back of it should not be, as is often the case, a 
strictly verticle plane, but should be inclined backward 
from the seat at a slight angle, and have such a curvation 
of surface as would adapt it to the natural curvature of the 
spinal column. This would be a hygienic back for 
any chair or seat; it would prevent not only that sen- 
sation of weariness which ensues from the long 
continued strain upon the muscles of the body but 
the still. greater tax upon the nervous system of the child. 
Many defects, such as spinal curvatures, the elevation of 
one shoulder above the level of the other, the distortion of 
the neck resulting often In a pernament disfiguration 
squinting of the eyes, etc., are very frequently defects 
having as a cause one entirely unthought of by parents and 
physicians, — the improper and anti-anatomical position of 
the child in school for a period of time ranging from eight 
to sixteen years, a period fraught with physiological evils 
unknown to those whose life is spent in the open air. 

That would be a slovenly family home in which no ar- 
rangements were made for the disposal of hats, cloaks, etc., 
in an orderly and systematic manner, but where each mem- 
ber was free to dispose of such garments in such places as 
might be most convenient to himself. The schoolroom is 

22 



DIDACTICS. 

the temporary home of the child. Cloak rooms, well lighted, 
should be provided in connection with every room, in which 
the children should have the "right of property" to some 
especial spot. These rooms should never be used as places 
of punishment by solitary confinement of derelict pupils. 
There could then be no complaints of thefts or other misde- 
meanors, complaints which teachers are compelled to inves- 
tigate and which can rarely be unraveled. Nor should these 
rooms ever be used as places of recreation. Tidiness is, 
with some, a natural personal trait, with others it must be 
acquired either by precept or by example. 




23 



DIPACTICS. 

OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

1. Give the etymology of "school." 

2. What is the present meaning- of the word? 

3. What is the difference between a common school 
and a public school? 

4. How are public schools established and supported? 

5. What is the legal status of a teacher? 

6. What sectarian restriction regarding schools in the 
constitution of IlUinois? 

7. Name the absolute school rights of a pupil. 

8. Why is order on the part of the teacher and the 
pupils necessary? 

9. Why is want of punctuality an evil habit? 

10. Why is obedience necessary? 

11. What do you understand by diligence? 

12. How secure it of the very young pupils? 

13. What do you say of untidy habits of teacher and 
pupil? 

14. Why is truthfulness absolutely necessay on the part 
of teacher, as well as pupil? 

15. Why should kindliness be inculcated? 

16. What advantages may be derived from parental 
visits? 

17. How should they be secured? 

18. What do you say of reflections upon friends in the 
presence of pupils? 

19. Which do you consider more important, health or 
education? 

20. How secure ventilation, if the builder has made no 
provision for it? 



24 



ALGEBRA. 

(THIRD PAPER.) 

"You must see with your brain as well as your eyes". 

To Find the Least Common Multiple of Mo- 
nomials. 

Model: Find L. C. M. of 18a%^c\ Ibb'^c^Xy and 96c»2. 

SOLUTION. 

18a263c2=2X3X3Xa2X&^Xc*. 
15b^c^=3X5Xb^Xc^XX' 
96ca;2=3X3X&XcXa;2. 
Hence the L. M. C.=2X3X3X5Xa2X&^Xc^Xa;2=: 
90a263c3x2. 

Explanation: The prime factors of the coefficients, 
taking each as often as it is found in any one of the quan- 
tities, are 2, 3, 3, and 6. The prime factors of the letter a, 
In like manner, are a, a, which are denoted by a^. Also 
the prime factors of 6 are denoted by 6^, and those of c by c^ 
and those of x by x^. Taking each of these factors the 
greatest number of times ic occurs in either of the given 
quantities, the product, 90a%^(^^y is the L. C. M. 

Rule:— Separate each quantity into its prime factors. 

Take each factor as often as it is found in any one of 
the quantities and form their continued product. This will 
be the L. C. M. 

Or, to use a shorter method, find the L. C. M.-of the 
coefficients, and to it annex all the letters in the quantities, 
giving to each letter the exponent of its highest power in 
either of the quantities. 



ALGEBRA. 

EXERCISES. ( 

Find the L. C. M. of the following quantities: 

1. 6a3, 9a263, and 18ax^. Ans. ISa^b^x'^. 

2. 14a262c2, 3562c3. and ^2a^b^x'^y^, Ans. 210a^b^c^x^y^. 

3. 4a, 7a26, 12a36^ and 15a%*, Ans. 420a364. 

4. 6a2xVj Sax^y, 120^2^, and Qaj/*. Ans. 72a^'^*, 

5. 15a263c2, 9a<6c8, and ISa^b^c^. Ans. OOaSb^cS. 

6. 21xy^i 28xy\ 35xV> and 63xV- Ans. 1260xV' 

7. lea^bc^d, 32a26x2, 4Sa^cy^, and SGaxV- 

8. 19mn2, blmhi^y, SSm^nx^ and 76m^n^xh/^. 

9. 34x2/3, dlx^y^z^, lIx^yH'^, and 102x3i/32;3. 

10. 27m27ix2, 36mn2/2, 45m2n2x22/2, and 72mnxy. 
To Find the Least Common Multiple of Poly- 
nomials. 

Model: Find L. C. M. of a^+b^ and a^+2ab+b\ 

SOLUTION. 

a2+2a5+62=(a+6)X(a+&). 

Explanation: As will be seen, the factors have been 
multiplied together, taking each as many times as it occurs 
in either of the quantities. The product, a*-\-a^b-\-ab^-\-b* 
is the L. C. M. 

Or, since the H. C. F., (a+b), contains all the factors 
common to both quantities, if one of the quantities, as 
(d +2ab4-62), be divided by the H. O. F., (a+5). and the 
quotient, (a-|-b^, be multiphed by the other quantity, 
^^3-1-63), the product, a^+a%-\-ab^+b\ will be the L. C. M. 
¥- V- Hule:— Separate the quantities into their prime factors 
and find the product of these factors, taking each the 
greatest number of times it is found in either of the quan- 
tities. The result is the L. C. M. 



ALGEBRA^ 

Or, divide one of the quantities by their H. C. F. and 
multiply the other by the quotient. The result will be the 
L. C. M. 

Note: If there are more than two quantities multiply 
the H. O. F. by the quotients of all the quantities divided 
by it. For example, the H. O. F. of a^+2ah-\-b^y a^+a^b— 
ab^—b^i and a^ — 6^, is (a+b) ; dividing these quantities by 
this H. 0. F., we have, respectively, the quotients, (a+6), 
(a2— 62), and (a— 6), whose product, with that of the H. 0. 
F. (a+b) is a^—2a^l^+ab*-{-a^b—2a%^-]-b\ the L. C. M. 

EXERCISES. 

Find the L. 0. M. of the following: * 

1. a2— 62 and a^—2ab-\-b^. Ans. a^—a%—ab^+b\ 

2. m^ — n^ and m^—n^. Ans. m"* — mn^-}-m^n — ?i*. 

3. a2— 1 and a2+2a-fl. Ans. a^+a^— a— 1. 

4. ac— 6c, ax — 6a7, ay — by, Ans. acxy — bcxy, 

5. x2— 4, a;2— 4x4-4, and 2x2+8a;-|-8. Ans. 2x<— 16x2+32. 

6. m2-fm+l and m^— 1. Ans. m^ — 1. 

7. 4(l-f7i2),8(l— n),4(l— ii2),and8(l+n). Ans. 8(1— n*). 

8. m2+2m and (m+2)2. Ans. m(m+2)2. 

9. 1 — x2, 1 — x^, and l-(-x. Ans. l+x — x^ — x*. 

10. a2-f 2a64-62, a^— 62, and a2— 2a6+62. Ans. a*— 2a26a 
+6*. 

FRACTIONS. 

A Fraction, (frangere— to break), is an expression in- 
dicating dfvision; it is usually represented by a quantity 
called the Numerator written above a horizontal line, and 
having another quantity called the Denominator written 
below it. The value of a fraction is the quotient arising 
from the division. 

In Arithmetic the denominator (denominare — to 
name,) gives name to the fraction; in Algebra, the name 



A£,GEBRA. 

of the fraction is taken from the form of the numerator. 

Thus,— 

a a — b 2a— 3&4-C x-\-2h—y — 3c 
V 2x ' x—y ' 2(a— 2a&) * 

are respectfully read as follows: The Monomial fraction 
* 'a" divided by "4," binomial fraction "(a— 6)" divided 
by "2x1'; trinomial fraction "(2a— 36-fc)" divided by "(a; 
—2/)"; quadrinomial fraction 'Hx+2— 2/— 3c)" divided by 
twice the binomials "(a — 2a6)". 

The Sign of a fraction is always written at the left of 
the dividing line, and should never be elevated above its 
level. It is the sign of the operation to be performed, 
and not of any term in the numerator or denominator. If 
this sign is minus (— ), it changes all signs in the numerator 
when the fraction is reduced to a whole number. " Great 
care should be exercised in the observance of this effect. 

As in integral quantities, the sign -f- may be under- 
stood when the fraction is the first term of an algebraic 
quantity. The terms of both numerator and denominator 
have ' signs independent of the sign of the fraction and 
when the sign of the fraction is changed the signs of each 
term in the numerator, or of each term in the denominator, 
are correspondingly changed. 
For instance, 

/ , h — c-\-d\ —h-\-c—d h—c+d 
X — ( a-\ ' — )=a; — a ' , or x — a ' — . 

If all the signs of the numerator are changed, the sign 
of the fraction is changed; a-\ — -5— =a -—-, 

In like manner, changing the signs of all the terms in 
ttie denominator changes the sign of the fraction; a-\ — -?— 



ALGEBRA. 

Changing the signs of the terms in both numerator and 
denominator does not alter the sign of the fraction, that is 

the changes balance each other; a-\ — ^^=a+ ~ T"^ ; 

PRINCIPLES. 

The principles involved in transforming fractions, are 
the following: 

1.— Multiplying the numerator, or dividing the denom- 
inator, multiplies the fraction. 

2.— Dividing the numerator, or multiplying the denom- 
inator, divides the fraction. 

3.— Multiplying or dividing both terms of a fraction 
changes its form, but not its value. 

TRANSFORMATIONS.—CASE 1. 

To change an integral quantity into a fraction having 
a given denominator: 

Rule:— Multiply the integer by the given denominator, 
and write the denominator under the dividing line. 

This application of the third principle is based upon 
the fact that every integer has a denominator 1 under- 
stood, but not written. 

1. Change 26c to a fraction whose denominator is 30. 

. 605c 
Ans.^^. 

Model operation: 

Change Sab to a fraction whose denominator is 6. 3a&= 
Sab . Sab 6 18ab 

1 1 ^y~ 6 • 

2. Change 2a-}-36 to a fraction whose denominator is 

8ab+1268 
46. Ans. ^ . 

3. Change x-\-2y to a fraction whose denominator is 
b^-d^. Ans. — §i_^ -. 



ALGEBRA, 

4. Reduce 3a+46 to a fraction having 6c^ for its de- 

18ac2 4-24&c2 



nominator. Ans. 



6c2 



5. Change a+6 to a fraction having a~b for a denom- 

a2— 52 
inator. Ans. —; — jr. 

6. Change 3ahy to a fraction having 4a— 6 for a de- 

12a-by—3ab^y 
nominator. Ans. . . . 

7. Reduce ca;+% to a fraction having c-f2 fora de- 

c^x-{-cdy-\-2cx-\-2dy 
nominator. Ans. —70 • 

CASE 2. 
To reduce a fraction to any required denominator: 

Rule. — Divide the required denominator by the de- 
nominator of the fraction and multiply both terms by the 
quotient. 

m 

1. Reduce-5- to a fraction whose denominator is 21. 

Operation: 21^-3=7 

mX7 _7m 
Ans. 3X7 —21' 

EXPI, A NATION. 

Dividing 21, the required denominator, by the given 

denominator 3, the quotient is 7. Multiplying both terms 

7fn 
of the given fraction by the quotient 7, the result, -2^ 

is the required fraction. 

2. Change y ^^ ^ fraction whose denominator is 14. 

lOd 

Ans. -j^. 



ALGEBRA. 



3. Reduce -r^ to twenty-fourths. Ans. 2^ 

4 24 * 

d CLC 

4. Reduce -, to the denominator be. Ans. -,-. 

2x 4;r2 

5. Reduce -^ to the denominator \'^x. Ans. ,Tr-. 

6. Reduce -^— to the denominator \%cd. Ans. .. , , . 

3 

7. Reduce ^z:^ to the denominator a2_^2^ ^^g^ 



3(a+^) 



^2 — _^a • 

CASK 3. 

To reduce a fraction to its lowest terms: * 

Note. — A fraction is in its lowest terms when the 
numerator and denominator have no common divisor. 

2\a^bcU^ 
1. Reduce ^2abcd^ **^ '*® lowest terms. 

Operation: 

2\a^d^-^2\abcd^ acd 
A2abcd^ -i-21abcd^^ 2 ' 

Explanation: The factors 3, 7, a, by c, dy d^ are com- 
mon to both terms. When the common factors are can- 
ard 
celed, the fraction becomes -2~; or we may say the pro- 
duct of these common factors, their H. C. F., is 21a bcd^; 
dividing both terms of the fraction by this H. C. F., the 

acd 
result is -x-. In either case both terms have been divided 

by the same quantity, hence the value of the fraction is 

unchanged. (Principals). Since the terms in the result 

acd 
have no common divisor, -^ ^^ t^® expression of the 

given fraction in its lowest terms. 



ALGEBRA. 

Rule.— Cancel common factors of both terms and form 
products of remaining factors. Or, divide' both terms of 
the fraction by their H. C. F. 

EXERCISEIS. 

Simplify the following fractions: 

ISabx^ ."^ 

2. og„A9^s.;9 "» Ans. 




3. 4^3y Ans. ^. 

4. I? — 0TTTT9. Ans, 



a^—2ad+d^' ^^^' a—b ' 

a^—b^ a—b 

^' a^-{-2ab+b^' ^^^' a+b' 

4;r2 2x 
"• o^ -in^s" Ans. 

7. 



8^— 10Ar2- ^^»- 4— S^r* 

2^—2 



8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 






^3 — _^' 

a^—2ab 
a^—4ab-{-4b^' 

2.^2— 5;tr-|-3 
x'^+x—2 • 



ALGEBRA. 

Solution: 
gg— ^8 {a^—d^){a^+d^) {a—d){a^-\-ad-[-b^)[a+b){a^—ad^-b^) 

Canceling- equal factors in numerator and denominator 

there remains: 

( a^+ad+b^ ) ( a^—ab+b^ ) a^J\.aW^h^ 

(a2H-62) — a^-\.b^ • ^^^* 

CASB 4. 

To reduce a mixed quantity to a fractional form: 

Rule,— Multiply the integral part by the denominator 
of the fraction; add the numerator of the fraction to the 
product and place the sum over the denominator. 

3a 11a 

1. 2a-\-~r» Ans. -7-. 

Model Operation: 

2c 20b 2c 20b-\-2c 

2a 

2. 5a — -y-' A 

4a— 3 

3. «+— 6". 

4. 2x-i--~—. 
Ay — 4 



5. 2x- 



8 



^5=" 


5 


• 


35a: — 2a 


33a 


1S« 


7 - 


- 7 • 


Ans. 


10a—: 
6 


3 


Ans. 


16;»r+4jj/+4 




8 


Ans. 


lex- 


-4J/+4 



2a — Sax Sax+20a-\-2a — Sax 
6- ^+^+ Sa ' ^"^- 5^ 

«2_^ C2_^_^^2_^2 

7. a—b-^-~-Tj-. Ans. 



8. 2a— 25- 



a-{-b ' ' a-\-b 

a^—b^ 



a—b • 

b—c^ 
9. 35-2^+4^114^. 



CASB 5. 
To reduce a fraction to a whole or mixed quantity: 
Rule. — Divide the numerator by the denominator, 
placing* the remainder, if any, over the divisor, and annex- 
ing it by the proper sign to the quotient. 

44^24-12^+3 

1. Reduce ^rz to a whole or mixed quantity. 

4;r2-f 12^+3 , , , 3 
Operation: — — -^ =;jr-}-3+^ 

Explanation: Ax is contained in Ax^^ x times; in \2x^ 
3 times; placing the remainder 3 over the denominator we 

3 
have aJ+3+-7— , the mixed quantity required. 

KXERCISES. 

Reduce the following to integral or mixed expressions: 

ah—b^ 

2. — T — , Ans. a — d. 

ax-^x^ . x'^ 

3. — . Ans. X — — -> 

a a 

4. i . Ans. a+o, 

3a2-^6a— 2 2 

5. 5^ . Ans. a-2— 3^. 



6. 



x^-\-y^ 

^_^y ' Ans. x^—xy-^y^, 

7. ^, ^ . Ans. a^—ab-\-b\ 
a^-^2ab+b* 



8. 



a — b 



a*-^2x* 
^' a+2x • 

4x^—3x+S4 

x+A ' 

12a^+4a—Zb 
. 4^ ' 



10. 



10 



ALGEBRA. 

CASE 6. 

To reduce to their L/Owest Common Denominator, — for 
the purpose of adding- or subtracting- their equivalents — 

Kule: Find the It. C. M. of the denominators of the 
fractions. This will be the lowest common denominator. 

Divide this common denominator by the denominator 
of each fraction, and multiply both terms of the fraction by 
the quotient. 

EXAMPI^ES. 

Reduce to their Lowest Common Denominator: 

23:r 4x 

1. -5-, and -^. 

Model operation. 

Lt. C. D. is 30. First multiply by 6. 

23;r 6 138;tr 

■ g ^6~~30~ ^®<^o^^ multiply by 5. 

4x 5 20x 
6 ^S^W 

7b Sb , Ub 15b 

2. -g-, and -g-* Ans. ^, and ^. 

Ab 3c . 16b^ 9c^ 



3- "37' ^"^ Jb' ^^^- 12^7' ^^^ 12^- 

4a-[-Sb Sa—4 ^ 12a-\-15b lOac—^c 

^' "^^' ^"^ "^37~* ^"^- 6J~' ^""^ ~6^~' 

x+y x—y aj2__y 3a^a;H-3«^j/ 2rta; — 2 ay 

5. — T~> Tr~» aiid — r-;^ — • Ans. -z—: » 2 ^t 

2 3^ 2a 6ac 6ac 

6ac 

x^2 x—2 a;-f3 x^-\-x—2 x^—x—l 

6. -^ipi* -^Zli* and ^2:::^. Ans. a.2_i » jci-i » 

a a 

7. ,^ AWA^. and 



(a-<^)('^— r) ^""^ {a—c){b—cy 

a^ — ac a^ — a5 

^^^' {a—b){a—c){b-cy (a—b){a—c){b—cy 

11 



8. 



ALGEBRA. 



4 24 2x 

■^=5' .4x2—25' ^^^ x+S' 



a a 2a 

9. -tttj -tt-^' •X2~?»' and 



10. 



"H^' a+3' a2_9' ^nu ^_^. 

x-\-Z x—2 1 

a;2_|_a._2' a;2_4a;_|-3' and (3.^2 )2' 



ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF FRACTIONS. 

The addition, or the subtraction of fractions, is based 
upon the following- principle: Similar fractions only can 
be added or subtracted. 

Rule:— Reduce the given fractions to similar frac- 
tions, (fractions having the>ame denominators). 

Add or subtract the numerators and place the result 
over the common denominator. 

With mixed numbers the operations may be performed 
upon the integers and fractions separately and the results 
united. 

EXAMPI.ES. 
Add 

a b ax — ay-\-bx \-by 

1- -^4^' -^' A'^s. ^aZIy • 

l-f^, i—d 2+2^2 ^4^2 

2. 3Z:^' -i^' ^^^' l—d^ ' ^^ ^+1—/^' 

14-a2 1— a2 2-f2a^ 4a* 

3. iZ:^2' iq:72- Ans. ^3^, or 2+^3^4. 

a;2 a; a; 2x^ 

4. -9 — ;» ^ , . » — — 7' Ans. 



a;2_i' x+1' JB-l* ^"^' x2— 1* 

2adc 6ad ^ , , . .. . hc-\-^ad 

5- Ta^' T^y Ans. (after reduction) -2^^. 

Subtract 

Sacc 2aa; lahx — 3aa; 

6. ^ from 4^. Ans. ^^^ • 

4 6 2a;— 10 

7. ^Hi from -^q:^. Ans. -2=4- 

35+1 x—\ ^ —4a; 

8. ^3i from ^q:^. Ans. -^Zi' 

12 



ALGEBRA. 

Reduce to simplest form 

^' a—b~^a-^b a-{-b a—b' ^^^' ^21132 '• 
.A ^a^bf {a—bf . 6aH-\-2b^ 

11. (2a.+-^)-(3x— ^^). 

^^- xy '~xy-\-:^~W^' ^^^' ^• 

-.>. a?4-2 a;— 1 ^ - 13a;+2 

14- i^^f^M.. 1^ — |^^ AM^ o; . Ans. 



12. 



(«— 6)(a;— 3) (x-f4)(»-3)* ^"'*- (aj— 6)(a;— 3)(a;+4)' 

3a;2— 21/2 
IS. ix^-y)- 



16. 



3a+j/ 
a;*— ;y a;2_j_^ 



x^—f~ a;2+y 

gg— 2 2— g 2 

^^* (x+7)(a;-3)+(a;+5)(a;-3)+(a;+7)(a;+5)' '^'^** 

—2 

(a;+7)(aj— 3)(a;+5)* 
a— ^ 6 g2_^2 

MUlyTlPI^lCATlON O^ FRACTIONS. 

Rnle: — Reduce mixed numbers, if there are any, to a 
fractional form, and every integral expression to a fraction 
with 1 for a denominator. 

Indicate the operation by the multiplication character, 
and cancel all factors which are common to both terms. 

The product of the numerators ^will be the required 
numerator, and that of the denominators the required 
denominator. 

1. Find the product of 

Infin Sab x^y 

Zxy^Ucd^m^n' 
7m^n Zab x^y TyjSabm^nx^y abx 

Zxy^lAcd^ mH ~ Sy^lAcdmhixy ~2cd' 

13 



ALGEBRA. 

2. Find product of 

a^—b^ a^—2ab a^—2kb-\-b'^ 

a^—2ab+2b^^ a^—ab ^a^-Y^ab^-b^' 

l^xpressijig the numerators and denominators in prime 

factors, 

(g-f^)(g— ^) g(g— 26) {a^b)[a~b) ,a~b 
(a—b){a—2by^ a^a—b) ^{a-^b)(a-\-b)'- a-^-d' 

The common factors cancelled are {a-^b), {a — b)t a, 
{a— 2b), {a—b). 

SXAMPI^^S. 

Find products of 

2x Zab Zac Ax 
^- -3^' — ' 2^» -2^- ^^^- ^^ • 

ax ab ^ 2a^b 

2. 2a+-^, — . Ans. «*+^^« 

aa; a^ — x^ c a^c 

4 jc+v a?^ — y"^ 
4. ^i:^i-2~> 2 • Ans. (x4-:j/)(a;+j^'),ora;2+2a;jv4-y. 

(g4-^)» Sy 6 24y(g+6) 

^* 2^^ ' (fl— 6)' (a+<^r *^®* a— ^ • 

(g-<^)^ (g+^)y 4 4(g+^) 

o. y , ^^a—b) ' ia—b)^' ^^^' {a—b)y 

7. (^+^). (^-|^)- Ans. x2. 

x-\-y 2ax ax 

^' "T"' 10(x+y)2- Ans. 25(a;+:j//* 

a:2_2a;y 4-1/2 (^4-^)2 _ 
9. ^/. > -^^^' Ans. (6+.)(a.-:v). 

a;*— :>/< a^>3 6(a;2_y) 

^^- a2/^2 f ajs+y Ans. ^ 

2d 2^(x2-fy) 4d 

11. —I — ::!, iQ . Ans. 



ad— ^)\/ ab^-b^^/ a^ 



12- C«— ^qr-^' \^—^^+^-) \ a^-ab-^b^ )' Ans. a2. 



14 



AI.GEBRA. 

^ — 2xy4-y^ — z^ xA-y — z x ~y — z 

fj rL-UL \/ — Li^ AtiB — 

^^' x^+2xy-\-y^—z^^x—y-^z' -^^^^ x+y+z' 
a^-\-7ab+12b^ a^-\-ab—2b^ 

Solution. — Factor the fractions as follows: 

g2+7g<^+12^2 (a-\-2>b){a-\-Ab) 
a2+5a<^-h662 — (a-{-2b)(a-^Zby 

a ^+ab—2b'^ {a—b){a-\-2b) 
a2+3a<5— 4(^2=( a-\-Ab )( a— by 

Then, canceling equal factors, 

(^aj^Zb)(^aJ^^b) {a-b)[a^-2b) 
{a+2b){a-^2>b)^{a-\-Ab){a—b)--^' ^^^* 

15. Multiply :^^^^^^, X^^3+^3 by —^^ 

16. Multiply ^(,^+;,) X(^4.^)2_,;,2 by -^— . 

, a(l— a3) (1— a2)2 (l+a)2 

17. Multiply -jq^X l+a+«^ ^^ (i-a)^- 

fl2_((^2_|.^2_^2<^C) a+^— ^ 

18. Multiply a-^^ab-ac ^^ a-\-b-\-c' 



Ans. 



a-\-b—c 



a 

DIVISION OP IfRACTlONS. 

Rule:— Multiply the dividend by the reciprocal of 
the divisor. (Reduce any mixed or integral quantities to 
fractional form before dividing). 

Find the result of ~^»«» 

1 25 X 1 

Solution.— The reciprocal of m is — ; y-5-w=yX— = 

— . Ans. 
my 

a—b cfi—b'^ a^--b^ . 

Divide -— - by — ;;^— . The reciprocal of — ^- is 

^TTpJ c c^ c ^cL^ — b^ a-\-b- 

IS 



AJLGEBRA. 



1 a^+b^ a^—ab-\-bK 

Divide -^X^2+2a^+^ ^^ a-\-b 

Solution. ^ X^2_^2a6+62 ^ ^_|_^ = ^ X a^j^2ab-\-b^ 

^a^—ab+b^"^ a^ {a-{-b){a-{-b) ^a^-ab+b^—a' 

The common factors canceled are {a-\-b) {a^ — ab-^b^) and 

ia+b). 

Divide: 

4^3x2 2a^x^ ^ lab 

^- 655;2-by-^. Ans. — . 

8x21/2 2a;i/2 
2- -2^^y 4^2^. Ans. ^abx. 

5a;2j3 15a;3y j/ 

m^n^y^ m*n*y^ 2ac 

^' 'l^b^ ^^ IM^' ^^^' bm^n^y^' 

4a;2— Sic x2— 4 Ax 

5. ^ -J- — ^ — . Ans. 



3 • '^"*- x+2* 

a^—b* a^-\-ax a^—a%^—a%'^-\rb^ 

6. „o />^^ I ^2-5-^2 A2« Ans. 



a2 — 2aa;+a;2 • a2 — ^2' • ^4 — ^2x2— a^x-f-aajS ' 

a;2— 1 <^2(^_|_i) - X— 2a;+l 

d "^ x-\ ' /^^^- 63 • 

{a^—ax){a—x) 3{c—x){l~{-x) 



°* (<^c+<^ic)(l— a;)"^4(a+tc)(a-fa;)* 

^- g+d "*■ a—b ' ^"^* gs+^a* 

10. (^+7)^(^-^- Ans. 1. 

g2— 2gc+^2 64fi? 

11- 16^ 45 • Ans. ^2_2g^+^2. 

J20(g2+^"1 5(g+b)2 4(g2H-^^)(g— ^) 

12. -j 4(^_^) /-^4(g2— 2g<^-h<^2)- Ans. ^^^^^^ 



13. 



a^—b^ a—b 

a^—Ab^ ~^a-{-2b' 



16 



14. 



ALGEBRA. 

9a2_4^2 'i,a—2b 
4—^2 "^ 2+a • 

vt^ — 4m-\-3 m^ — lOm-f-21 m^ — 7m 
' m^ — 5m-\-4~^ m^ — 9/«4-20 ^w^ — 5m' 
a;2— 7ic4-6 x^— 14x+48 x^-\-6x 



16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 



{m-\-n)^ — a^ a^ — (m-{-n)^ 
nt^ — [n — a)^~^a^—{n — m )^' 

{m — n)^ — d^ m.^—{n — d)^ 
{m — b)'^ — n^~^m,^ — {b — n)^' 

a^—2ab+b^—c^ a—b+c 



a^+lab^b^—c^'^ a-\-b—c ' 

compi,e;x fractions. 
A complex fraction is a fraction which has on% or both 
terms fractional. As the denominator of a fraction is al- 
ways the divisor, and the numerator the dividend, a com- 
plex fraction may be simplified by performing- the division 
of the numerator by the denominator. 
a a 

1. Simplify T". "l=4--^=4-X4-==T-- 

— -- 6 b c be 

a a 

2. Simplify b — c . b—c =~ — '^d='r^Y.—r-=^ ,f' . 

^ "^ , , — c b — c d bd—cd 

d d 

a a 

3. Simplify X . x =a-i =«X^^==-^. 

y XX 

y y 

x—y x—y 



o.. -..^ m-^n m-\-n x—y m-\-n x—y 

4. Simplify — . = ~-H- — 7 — = r-X 

■^ "^ m-\-n m-{-n m>-\-n x-\-y ni-\-n ^ 

x-\-y x-\-y 

x-\-y x^—y^ 

in-\-n "^ m^-\-2mn-\-n'^ ' 

a a 



S. Simplify — T T— . 

a + (^ ' a — b 

17 



ALGEBRA. 



Solution: 



a{a — b) — a{a-\-d) b{a--d)-{-d{a-\-b) aia—b)—a{a-^b) 



{a+b)(a—b) ^ {a+b){a-b) " (a+dKa—b) 
{a-\-b){a — b) a{a — b) — a{a-{-b) a?- — ab—a^—ab — lab 
^ b{a-b)-^b{a+b)"^b{a—b) -^b{a-{-b) ^ab~b^+ ab-{-b^^~2ab"' 

— 1. Ans. 



in^ 



m^ 



6. Simplify n . Ans. . 

^-' nxy 

xy -^ 



7. Simplify 



8. Simplify 



m — 1 
m — 1* 

in-\-\. 
a — b 



a-{-b 
m^ — nfi 



Ans. 



{m — 1)2- 



Ans. 



9. Simplify a — b . Ans. 

'm-\-n 

/ Q I) a;2 y2 

10. Simplify ^_. Ans. ^^-^. 



a^—b'^ 
fill — fi^ 



m^ — mn^-[- mhi-\-n^ 



a — b 




18 



ALGEBRA. 
OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

(THIRD PAPER.) 

1. Explain how to find the ly. C. M. of two or more 
quantities. 

2. Find U C. M. of 18i ac^—c^), 12{ a^-\-ac) and 4{a^—c^). 

3. What is a fraction? The value of a fraction? 

4. Tell what is meant by "the sig-n of a fraction." 

5. What is the result if the sign of the fraction is 
chang-ed? If the sign of the numerator is chang-ed? The 
sig-n of the denominator? 

6. In what two ways may a fraction be multiplied? 
Divided? 

7. What is the effect of multiplying or dividing both 
terms of a fraction by the same quantity? 

8. How change an integral quantity into a flection 
having- a given denominator? 

9. Change 7? — a^ to a fraction having 7?-\-cfi for a de- 
nominator. 

10. How is a fraction reduced to an equivalent fraction 
having- a required denominator? 

11. Reduce — rr- to a fraction whose denominator la 

a-\-b 

12. Explain how to reduce a fraction to its lowest terms. 

13. Reduce — 3 , ,3 — to lowest terms. 

14. Explain how to reduce a fraction to a whole or 
mixed quantity. 

in — n n—y y—m-A-my 

fnn ' ny ~^ my * 

m — 1 m 

16. From — — — take — — 7-. 

tn m — 1 

17. Multiply 1-1^ by 2+^. 

18. What is the rule for division of fractions? 

11 1 

19. Divide -:r+-7r by x—\+—-. 



20. 




19 



FIRST GRADE— NUMBER FOUR. 



Teachers' Home Series 



fW"^*i»"»» 



L. B. McKENNA. M. A., II. D., 

Prealdenl and Director. 



Qulncy School of CorrespondencOf 
Quincy, Illinois, 



'>m 



COPYRIGHT 
QUiNCY BUSINESSlCOLLEGE- 

1902. 




BOTANY. 

( FOURTH PAPER. ) 
THE FI,0WER ( CONTINUED. ) 

The Androecium.— The stamens which compose th" 
set in the flower, are the male organs of reproduction. The 
structures are formed of the following- well marked par • 

1. Filament, the stem-like portion of the stamen corre" 
sponding to the petiole in the leaf. Should it be wanting, 
the anther is sessile. If it is very fine, it is called capil- 
lary; if more thread-like, filiform; while should it be 
petal-like, as in the White Pond-lily, it is said to be 
petaloideous. * 

2. Anther, the enlarged part of the stamen at the end 
of the filament. It is supposed to be the analogue of the 
lamina of the leaf. Its two lobes appear as though formed 
of a leaf whose margins have been turned inward until they 
meet at the midrib. 

The insertion of the anther on the filament is described 
as follows: 

(a) Innate, when standing erect on the end of the 
filament. 

(b) Adnate, the filament appearing to pass between 
the two lobes, these being attached along its sides. 

(c) Versatile, the anther balanced at its middle on the 
fine filament, so as to swing freely in any direc- 
direction. The versatile anther is thus indifferent 
in its relation to the center of the flower but the 
other two forms of insertion are usually more con- 
stant in the direction that they face. When they 
face inward, the are called introrse; if they face 
outward, then they are extrorse. 

3 



BOTANY. 

In order that the Pollen grains contained in the anther 
may be liberated when mature, the cells of the anther must 
split open or dehisce; in doing this each species is found to 
adhere to a certain plan in its mode of dehiscence. It may be: 

(a) lyongitudinal or Vertical, when the anther opens 
by a slit throughout its length. 

(b) Transverse, when opening cross-wise. 

(c) Valvular, opening by lateral valves or lids; Ex. 
Barberry. 

(d) Porous, pollen discharged through pores, at the 
apex; E/X. Rhododendron. 

3. The Connective, the portion of the anther joining 
the two lobes, and corresponding to the midrib in the leaf .It 
may be well marked, as in the Sage, where it carries the 
lobes well apart; or it may be absent, as in the Hollyhock, 
where the two lobes are confluent so as to appear as one. 

4. The Pollen. — This usually occurs asa fine powdery 
dust consisting of microscopic vegetable cells, which are 
developed within the lobes of the anther. Bach cell con- 
tains a semi-fluid substance called the f ovilla, enclosed 
within a double cell-wall. The inner of these walls, the 
intine, is very thin and elastic; while the outer, the extine, 
is thicker and marked by special lines and markings. 

In the production of these pollen grains nature is very 
prodigal, but this is to compensate for the excessive waste 
in their dispersion; for unless they find their way to the 
stigma of a pistil in a flower of the same species, they are 
lost as factors in the process of reproduction. It will be 
noticed that if this transfer is to be through the medium 
of the winds, the pollen is light and dry; whereas if carried 
by the agency of insects it is more moist or sticky. In the 
Orchids and the Milkweed the pollen is not in separate 

4 



BOTANY. 

grains but occurs in masses, these masses being- called 
pollinia. 

Number of Stamens.— When the number of stamens 
is less than twenty they are said to be definite, if more 
than twenty, indefinite, or polyandrous. If there is 
only one stamen to each flower, the term monandrous is 
applied; if only two stamens, diandrous; if three, trian- 
drous; four, tetrandrons; five, pentandrous; six, 
hexandrous; and so on to polyandrous. 

Insertion. — Tlie stamens may be inserted on the 
corolla, epipetalous, or they may be free from the corolla. 
They are then hypogynous, if inserted on the receptacle 
underneath the pistil; perigynous, if inserted on the calyx, 
literally around the pistil; epigynous, if borne apparently 
on the top of the ovary; gynandrous, if the stamens are 
adnate to, or inserted on the style, as in the I^ady's Slipper 
and Orchids in general. 

Grouping of Stamens.— Stamens are said to be dis- 
tinct, when there is not any union with each other. When 
united, the following terms are often used; monadel- 
phous, when they are all united by their filaments into one 
set, as in the Mallow; diadelphous, when united by their 
filaments into two sets, usually nine and one, as in the Pea; 
triadelphous, when united into three sets, as in St. 
John's-wort; pentadelphous, when united into five sets. 
Polyadelphous is sometimes applied when there is a 
union into anything more than two sets. 

Syngenesious is a term used to denote that the 
stamens have their anthers united into a ring or tube sur- 
rounding the style, as in the Violet and all the Compositae. 
When there are only four stamens, distinct, but in two pairs, 
one pair longer than the other, as in the Gerardia, the term 
didynamous is applied. When there are only six stamens, 

5 




BOTANY. 

not united, but four long and two short, as in the Mustard 
family, they are said to be tetradynamous. 

The Gynoecium. — The gynoecium consists of one or 
more pistils situated at the center of the flower. The flower 
is said to be monogynous when it has a single pistil, either 
simple or compound, digynous, when it has two pistils, 
trigynous, tetragynous, pentagynous, hexagynous 
or polygynous, when it has either three, four, five, six or 
many pistils. Morphologically, a pistil is made up of one 
or more flower-leaves or carpels. A simple pistil may 
also be called a carpel as it consists of a single leaf blade 
with margins incurved and united where they meet, forming 
a closed case or pod bearing ovules on the suture or junc- 
tion of the margins. The swollen basal portion, which 
contains the ovules, is called the ovary; the upper portion 
may taper out to form a more or less slender style sur- 
mounted by a slightly enlarged tip called a stigma. The 
suture formed by the united margins of the carpel-leaf is 
the ventral suture. The line down the back of the carpel 
corresponding to the midrib of the leaf is the dorsal 
suture. 

A compound pistil is made up of two or more carpels. 
These may be united at their bases only, leaving the upper 
portion of the ovaries, styles and stigmas, separate; or the 
union of the ovaries may be complete, leaving the styles 
and stigmas separate; or there may be a partial or complete 
union of the styles and stigmas. The union of the carpels 
may take place in two ways. One method is as follows: 
Imagine the several carpels with their leaf-margins united 
to form, first several distinct pistils and then these pistils 
pressed together and coalesced with their ventral sutures 
all towards the center. The result will be a compound pistil 
with as many compartments or cells as there are carpels, 

6 



BOTANY, 

and also as many dissepiments or partitions as there are 
carpels. Furthermore, the ovules would be borne upon a 
central or axial placenta formed by the enlarged ventral 
sutures. Now if the partitions between the cells be allowed 
to disappear, there will be one cell formed from the several 
cells, and the ovules will be borne on a free central or 
axial placenta. 

In the second method the carpels are simply joined to 
each other by their margins like the petals of a gamopetal- 
ous corolla. This makes a one-celled pistil with parietal 
placentae, that is, with the ovules borne on the outer walls 
of the pistil where the carpel margins coalesce. Sometimes 
the parietal placentae become enlarged and extend into the 
center of the cell so far as to almost divide it into Several 
cells. So there is every gradation between the one-celled 
pistil with parietal placentae and the several-celled pistil 
with axial placentae. 

Ovules. — The ovule is that part in the flower which is 
destined to become a seed. The ovules may be numerous 
and distributed throughout the length of the cell or cells of 
the ovary, or they may be few or single (solitary). They 
may be sessile or with a distinct stalk, funiculus or 
funicle. 

The position and direction of the ovule in the ovary may 
be designated as, erect, when rising vertically from the 
base of the cell; ascending, when rising obliquely upwards 
from the side of the cell, generally near the base; hori- 
zontal, when projecting horizontally from the side of the 
cell; pendulous, when hanging obliquely downward from 
the side or near the top of the cell; suspended, when 
hanging perpendicularly from the very top of the cell. 

Structure of Ovule. — An ovule consists of a mass of 
vegetable cells, sometimes called the nucellus, enclosing a 

7 




BOTANY. 

cavity filled with protoplasm, the embryo sac. This is 
covered by one or two coats, the inner and outer tegu- 
ments, which do not quite meet at the apex of the ovule 
but leave a small hole, orifice, or foramen, opening- into 
the embryo sac. The foramen of the ovule becomes the 
micropyle of the seed. The place where the teg-uments 
seem to arise from, or blend with the nucellus is called the 
chalaza. This is usually at the base of the ovule diame- 
trically opposite the foramen. The point of attachment of 
the funiculus to the ovule is the Mlum. 

Kinds of Ovules.— An ovule is designated as ortho- 
tropus, or straight, when it develops without curving or 
turning", the chalaza and hilum being at the base and the 
foramen at the apex directly opposite the base; anatrop- 
OUS, or inverted, when it is turn e^ over against and grown 
to the funiculus, thus bringing the foramen close to the 
base while the chalaza is apparently at the apex; amphi- 
tropous, or half -inverted, when the ovule is turned only 
half way over so that the hilum is midway between the 
foramen and chalaza. In the last two forms a ridge, or 
rhaphe, is produced where the funiculus grows to the 
ovule. 

In all three preceding forms the axis of the ovule, or 
line joining the chalaza and foramen, remains straight. 
When the axis ol the ovule is curved so as to bring the for- 
amen near the chalaza and hilum, the ovule is said to be 
campylotropous, or incurved. This kind of ovule has 
a kidney shaped outline. 

THE FRUIT. 

The Fruit consists of the ripened ovary together 
with any intimately connected parts. EJvery fruit is 
made up of the seed or seeds, and the inclosing case or 

8 



BOTANY. 

pericarp. The pericarp may be composed of carpels only, 
or it may include the calyx and receptacle. 
Fruits may be classified as: 

(1 ) Simple, when they result from the ripening of a 
a single pistil. Kx.: Pea, Cherry, Gooseberry. 

(2 ) Aggregate, when a cluster of carpels of the same 
flower are crowded into a mass. Kx.: Raspberry, Black- 
berry. 

(3) Accessory, or Anthocarpous, when surround- 
ing parts make up a part of the fruit, as the calyx of the 
Wintergreen, the receptacle of the Strawberry. 

(4) Multiple, or Collective, when formed from 
several flowers consolidated. lS,x.: Pineapple, Mulberry. 

Classified with respect to texture, fruits may b^ 

( 1 ) Fleshy, soft and juicy throughout. Ex. : Berries, 
Grapes, Tomatoes. 

(2) Drupaceous, (Stone Fruits), outer part fleshy, 
inner part hard and stony. E^x. : Cherry, Peach. 

(3 ) Dry Fruits, without any fleshy portion. 
Again fruits may be: 

(1) Indehiscent, not opening at maturity to scatter 
the seeds; or, 

(2) Dehiscent, splitting open along certain lines to 
discharge the seeds* 

The principal kinds of fleshy fruits are: 

(a) The Berry, soft and fleshy throughout, as the 
Gooseberry, Currant, Blueberry, Cranberry, Tomato and 
Grape. 

(b) The Hesperidium, like a berry but with a 
leathery rind, as the Orange and I^emon. 

(c ) The Pepo, or Gourd Fruit, like the berry but 
with a hard, crustaceous rind, as Squash, Pumpkin, Cucum- 
ber, Melon. 



t 



BOTAXY. 

(d) The'Pome/fleshy portion formed of the perma- 
nent calyx inclosing- the papery seed-bearing- carpels which 
are arrang-ed in the form of a star at the core, as the Apple, 
Pear and Quince* 

The Drupe, or Stone Fruit, of which the Cherry, 
Plum and Peach are examples, has a pericarp divisible into 

three layers: 

(a) Eplearp, outermost layer, often the mere skin of 
the fruit. 

( b ) Mesocarp, middle or jfleshy layer. 

(c) Endocarp, innermost layer or stone. 
Sometimes only two layers are distinguished, Sarco- 

carp, or Exocarp, the fleshy or outer portion; Putamen 
or Endocarp, the stone. 

Dry Eruits are extremely varied in form and have 
many names to distinguish them. 

Of the indeMscent forms the most common are: 

(a) The Achene or Achenium, usually small, one- 
seeded, and often so seed-like in appearance as to be mis- 
taken for a single seed. The surface of the Strawberry is 
covered with the seed-like achenia. The so-called Sun- 
flower seeds are really achenia. The Clematis achenia 
retain the feathered styles, and the Dandelion, the calyx or 
pappus, both of which help in disseminating the seeds. 

(b) The Cremocarp, applied to the fruit of the 
Umbelli ferae and consisting of two achenes united in the 
blossom but separated in the fruit, as the Caraway seed. 

(c) The Utricle, similar to the achene except that the 
pericarp is loose and bladder-like, as in the Pigweed. 

(d) The Caryopis or Grain, having the pericarp 
inseparable from the seed, as in the wheat and corn, 

(e) The Nut which has a hard bony wall, as the Cocoa- 
nut, Hazelnut, Chestnut and Acorn. It is often partially 

10 






BOTANY. 

or completely inclosed by a persistent involucre called the 
cupule, as in the Acorn, where it forms a cup. Chestnut, 
where it forms the burr, and Hazelnut, where it forms a 
husk. The Butternut, Hickorynut, Walnut andCocoanut, 
are often regarded as modified drupes to which the term 
tryma is applied. 

(f ) The Samara or Key Fruit, a winged achene or 
nut, as the fruits of the Ash, IJlm and Maple. 

Dehiscent fruits may be formed from a simple pistil 
or from a compound pistil. 

In the first case the fruit is called: 

(a) A Follicle, if it splits down the ventral suture 
only, as in the Milkweed. 

(b) A IjCgume or true pod, if it opens alon^^ both 
the dorsal and the ventral sutures, as in the Pea. The two 
pieces formed by the splitting are called valves. 

(c) A Li oiuent, constricted between the seeds and 
breaking up into segments eventually. 

In the second case the fruit is called a capsule. This 
name applies to any dry dehiscent fruit of any compound 
pistil, but some special modifications have received special 
names. The capsule may burst open irregularly, or it may 
discharge its seeds through chinks or pores, or it may split 
lengthwise into valves. In the last form the dehiscene 
may be: 

(a) Loculicidal, splitting along the dorsal sutures of 
the carpels or directly into the cells; or it may be, 

( b ) Septicidal, splitting along the ventral sutures of 
the carpels or through the partitions, thus breaking up the 
capsule into the original carpels, which then open by their 
ventral sutures. If the valves break away from the par- 
titions leaving them attached to the axis of the fruit, we 
have what is called sepif ragal dehiscene. 

11 



BOTANY. 

The Silique is a modij&ed capsule having- the appear- 
ance of a leg-ume. It is two-celled because of a false portion 
between the two parietal placentae. In dehiscing-, the 
valves break away at the bottom first and when they fall 
they leave the partition attached to the flower-stalk. This 
is peculiar to the Mustard family. The Silicle, or Poucll, 
is a short and broad silique like that of the Shepherd's 
Purse. 

The Pyxis is a capsule which opens by a circular hori- 
zontal line forming a sort of lid. 

Of Multiple Fruits only two kinds deserve special 
names, viz: 

{ a ) The Syconium, or Fig-fruit, where the summit 
of the stem becomes fleshy and hollowed out, and lined with 
a multitude of tiny flowers, as in the common Fig; and, 

(b) The Strobile, or Cone, peculiar to the Pines, 
Spruces, and Coniferae in general. This consists of a 
number of overlapping scales, each bearing two naked seeds 
at its base. 

tniB; SHWD. 

The seed is the final product of the flower and consti- 
tutes the principal means of continuing the species. As it 
is developed from the ovule, many of the terms that apply 
to the ovule apply equally well to the seed. For instance, 
the terms designating its position and direction of growth 
(erect ascending, etc., etc.,) the form ( orthotropous, etc., 
etc.,) and structure (hilum, chalaza, raphe, etc., etc.,) have 
the same meaning when applied to the seed as when applied 
to the ovule. The micropyle of the seed is the remains of 
the foramen of the ovule. 

There are two coats to the seed, a thicker outer one 
(testa), and a thinner and more delicate inner one (teg- 
men). The outer coat sometimes expands to form a thin 

12 



BOTANY. 

wing, or is covered with long hairs (coma), as in the 
familiar Milkweed seeds and Cotton. Occasionally there is 
a peculiar outgrowth from the funiculus, which may remain 
a small scale-like appendage (caruncle of Polygala ), or 
may become so large as to invest the entire seed, (aril). 
The mace, of the Nutmeg, and the red succulent covering 
of the seed of the Staff-tree are good examples of the aril. 

Within the coats is a mass of tissue called the kernel 
or nucleus. This may consist of the embryo only, when 
the seed is exalbuminous, or of the embryo and a mass 
of nutrient material (the endosperm or albumen) when 
the seed is albuminous. 

The embryo is practically a minute plant with a tiny 
stem (caulicle or radicle), which gives rise to thegroot of 
the plant, one or more leaves (cotyledons), and a bud 
(plumule). When there is only one cotyledon, as in the 
corn, the embryo is monocotyledonous; when there are 
two cotyledons, the embryo is dicotyledonous; when 
there are three or more cotyledons the embryo is poly- 
cotyledonous. 

The cotyledons may be thin and f oliaceous, or thick 
and fleshy. In^the latter case the thickness is due to the 
food stored up within the cotyledons for the use of the future 
young growing plant. When thin, they may be straight 
or rolled up (convolute), or folded up (plicate), or 
variously bent to conform to the shape of the seed. The 
radicle may be bent up so as to lie along the edges of the 
flat cotyledons, or along the back of one of the cotyledons. 
In the former case the cotyledons are accumbent, in the 
latter incumbent. 

The endosperm which often makes up the greater part 
of the seed, is composed largely of starch and acts as a food 
supply when the seed begins to germinate. It may com- 

13 



BOTAXY. 

pletely surround the embryo, when the embryo is axile, or 
it may be inclosed by the embryo wrapping" itself around 
the outside, or it may occupy the g-reater portion of the seed, 
the embryo applying itself close to one wall of the seed. 

J^STIVATION OR PRElfl^ORATlON. 

This refers to the arrang-ement of the floral organs in 
the flower-bud, of which the calyx and corolla form the 
greater part. As these are only modified leaves, they follow 
much the same order in their disposition in the bud as the 
foliage leaves do — so that the terms already given under the 
caption of "Prefoliation," apply quite as correctly to 
"Prefloration." A few extra terms only have to be added 
to the list, to more fully define their forms and relations. 

1. Valvate, the edges of the individual leaves touching 
only, without overlapping. 

(a) Induplicate-valvate, having margins turned in, 
leaves valvate. 

(b) Reduplicate-valvate, margins turned out, valvate. 

(c) In volute- valvate, leaves valvate with margins rolled 
inward. 

2. Imbricate, when margins of contiguous parts over- 
lap like shingles. In this form there may be both the 
equitant and the half-equitant arrangements. 

3. Supervolute, the flower-leaves both twisted and 
folded, all in the one direction; E^x. Stramonium. 

ANTHROTAXY. 

This term, also called Inflorescence, refers to the 
arrangement of the flowers on the stem. There may be only 
one flower or there may be a cluster on a stem common to 
all. In the latter case they follow some definite plan in 
their arrangement. A flower cluster has several distinct 
parts which are named as follows: 

14 



BOTAXY. 

1. The Bachis, or Axis of Inflorescence along- 
which the flowers are arrang-ed. 

2. The Common Peduncle, or stalk by which the 
whole cluster is attached to the plant. 

3. The Pedicels, or stalks of the individual flowers. 

4. The Bracts, the small modified leaves on the rachis, 
from the axils of which the branches of the cluster spring. 
If these occur on the branches, then they are Bractlets. 

There are two principal kinds of inflorescence, the 
indeterminate and the determinate. In the inde- 
terminate inflorescence the lowest axillary buds develop 
first, the upper ones following in order so that the youngest 
buds are at the tip and new ones are constantly forming at 
this place. As a result the rachis continues to elon|fate and 
produce new flowers indefinitely. If the cluster is flat- 
topped then the oldest flowers are found at the periphery or 
circumference. 

In the Determinate type the first flower to mature is 
the one at the end of the rachis, the others appearing from 
above downward, so their probable number may soon be 
definitely learned. In the flat-topped cluster of this type, 
the oldest flower is found in the center with the later ones 
at the periphery. This arrangement is sometimes spoken 
of as centrifugal, in contradistinction to the centripetal 
plan observed in the indeterminate inflorescence. 

In both these forms the flowers may be solitary, or 
they may be clustered— depending on whether it is a single 
flower, or a group of flowers that springs in the one case 
from the axil, and in the other, from the end of the stem. 

In the indeterminate type of inflorescence several 
varieties are observed; these are as follows; 

1. Solitary, flowers occuring singly in the axils of 
ordinary leaves, 

15 



BOTAKY. 

2. Raceme, a cluster borne upon a lengthened axis, 
the flowers having pedicels of about equal lengths; Kx. Lily 
of the Valley. 

3. Panicle, a compound Raceme; E^x. Oat. 

4. Thyrse, or Thyrsus, a profusely branching, com- 
pact Panicle; Ex. Lilac, Horse Chestnut, Grape. 

5; Uinbel, a cluster in which the flowers reach about 
the same level; all being set upon a very short rachis, from 
which the pedicels radiate like the ribs of an umbrella; EJx. 
Onion, Milkweed. 

6. Compound Umbel, the peduncle branching into 
a number of secondary umbels; Bx. Parsnip. 

7. Corymb, a cluster in which, while the flowers reach 
to about the same level, the pedicels start from different 
levels along the rachis, so that the lowest ones are the 
longest; Ex. Hawthorn. 

8. Spike, a cluster of sessile flowers arranged along 
a more or less lengthened axis; Ex. Mullein, Plantain. 

9. Head, or Capitulum, resembling the Spike but 
having a shorter rachis, making the cluster much more 
compact; Ex. Clover, Dandelion. 

10. Strobile, a compact cluster having large scales 
which conceal the flowers; Ex. Hop. 

11. Spadix, a fleshy spike which is surrounded by a 
large petaloid bract, giving to the whole a lily-like appear- 
ancer Ex. Indian turnip, Calla. 

12. Catkin, or Ament, a slender, pendant spike with 
scaly bracts; Ex. Willow. 

The whorl of bracts that often surrounds the base of an 
umbel or that of a head and sometimes seen in a simple 
flower, as in the Anemone, is known as the involucre. 
The determinate forms of inflorescence are as follows; 

16 



BOTANY. 

1. Solitary, when but a single flower blooms at the 
end of the stem; Wood Anemone. 

2. Cyme, a flat-topped cluster on the centrifugal plan; 
Ex. Elder. 

3. Fascicle, a compactly arranged cyme, having 
shortened pedicels; Ex. Sweet William. 

4. Glomerule, or Glomerulus, a dense cluster on 
the cymose plan, flowers nearly or quite sessile, rachis short. 
It is like a head, but the arrangement is centrifugal; Ex. 
Canada Dogwood. 

5. Verticillaster, formed by the blending of two 
glomerules situated in the axils of opposite leaves, so as to 
appear like a whorl of flowers around a central stem; Ex. 
Mint. » 

Mixed Athrotaxy, is a term used to describe the 
inflorescence when plants show both the determinate and 
the indeterminate schemes in their flower clusters. 




17 



y^S 



BOTANY. 

(ifOURTH PAPER. ) 

OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

1. A stamen is made tip of what parts? Describe them, 

2. Describe three methods of insertion of the anther. 

3. What is pollen? How is it set free from the anther? 

4. Define the terms definite, monandrous, epi- 
petalous, hypogynous, perigynous, epigynous, 
gynandrous. 

5. What is the meaning of monadelphous, dia- 
delphous, syngenesious, didynamous, tetradyn- 
amous? 

6. Morphologically what is a simple pistil? Describe 
the parts of a pistil. 

7. What is dorsal suture? A ventral suture? 

8. What is a compound pistil? Give the two methods 
of union of carpels to form the compound pistil. 

9. What is a placenta? Distinguish between ( 1 ) 
axial placentae ( 2 ) free central placentae and ( 3 ) parietal 
placentae. 

10. Describe an ovule. What positions may it have in 
the ovary? 

11. Describe the different kinds of ovules. 

12. What do you understand by the term fruit? 

13. Distinguish between an aggregate fruit and a 
multiple fruit. 

14. Describe the following kinds of fruit: berry, 
drupe, achene, utricle, grain, nut, samara, legume, 
follicle,^loment, silique, and silicle. 

15. What is a seed? Define the terms aril, micropyle, 
albuminous, endosperm. 

16. What is prefloration? Give the three principal 
kinds. 

17. How does the determinate method of inflor- 
escence, differ from the indeterminate method? 

18. Describe a raceme, and distinguish it from a 
thyrse. 

19. Is 'the calla a lily? What portion of it constitutes 
the true inflorescence? 

20. Describe a corymb, and distinp^uish it from ^ 
cyme, 

18 



ZOOLOGY. 

( F0URi*H pape;r. ) 
arthropoda. 

The great branch Arthropoda includes a host of ani- 
mals only a few of which can be taken up here. The cray- 
flsher, lobsters, shrimps, crabs, water-fleas and others com- 
pose the class Crustacea ; the centipedes and thousand- 
leg-ged worms compose the class Myriapoda; the true 
six-footed insects compose the class Insecta, which in- 
cludes nearly two-thirds of all the known species of animals; 
the scorpions, mites, ticks and spiders constitute the class 
Arachnida. 

All of these animals have bilateral, segmented bodies 
like the worms, but they differ from the worms in possess- 
ing- jointed appendages, used for locomotion and food-tak- 

o 
mg-. In the typical Arthropod there is one pair of these 

appendages on each segment of the body, but as a matter 
of fact in all the Arthropods some of the segments have 
lost their appendages. The body is covered with a firm 
cuticle or outer body-wall called the exoskeleton. This 
serves to enclose and protect the soft parts of the body and 
also for attachment of the body muscles. It is composed 
of cliitin, a horny substance deposited by the cells of the 
skin. In crabs it is rendered hard and inflexible by an 
additional deposit of lime. In order to get a better idea 
of the Arthropods we will take up a typical animal in each 
class. 

crustaciBa: crayfish and its ai.i,ie;s. 
The crayfish, or crawfish, is found in most of the fresh 
water ponds of the United States. Most species dig bur- 
rows with little chimneys of mud at the entrance. In dry 

1 



ZOOLOGY. 

seasons the crayfish digs down until it reaches a wet place, 
sometimes twenty-five feet below the surface of the ground. 
External Structure. — The body is composed of an 
anterior part, the cephalothorax, and a posterior part, 
the abdomen. The cephalothorax is covered above and 
on the sides by the carapace, which is divided by a 
cervical suture, or groove, into parts corresponding to 
the head and thorax of other animals. The abdomen is^ 
composed of seven segments, the last of which is flattened| 
and called the telson. 

At the anterior end of the crayfish is a sharp projec- 
tion of the carapace, the rostrum. On each side of th^ 
rostrum is a stalked compound eye capable of movemenl 
in any direction. If a piece of the cornea of the eye bl 
examined with a microscope it will be found to be made u|i 
of many little hexagonal facets, each facet being the exl 
ternal wii?dow of an eye element, or omma tidium. In front 
of the eyes are two pairs of slender many- jointed append-; 
ages. The shorter pair, the antennules, are two-branchec 
and bear in their basal segments small bag-like structures 
containing fine sand-grains and opening to the exterior bj 
small slits bordered by a series of fine bristles. The sac!^ 
are believed to be auditory organs. The longer pair of 
appendages are the antennae. The joints are covered 
with fine hair-like appendages in which the sense of smell 
is supposed to be located. Beneath the basal portion of 
each antenna is a small opening, the exit of the kidney or 
green gland. 

A typical appendage, such as the abdominal append- 
ages, consists of a basal part, the protopodite, and two 
terminal segments, an inner one the endopodite, and an 
outer the exopodite. 



ZOOLOGY, 

In the cephalothorax some of the appendages are much 
modified showing- a loss of one of these parts or the addi- 
tion of an extra part. The first three pairs of appendages 
belong to the head and consist of a pair of mandibles and 
two pairs of maxillae. The mandibles lie next to the 
mouth opening and are hard and jaw-like and l^ck the 
exopodite ; the first maxillae are small and also lacks the 
exopodite ; the second maxillae have a larg-e paddle-like 
structure which extends back over the gills on each side 
within the space (branchial chamber) above the gills. 
It is by means of this paddle-like structure (the scaphog"- 
natliite)that currents of water are kept up through the 
gill-chambers. 

Three pairs of maxillipeds Increasing in size from first 
to third pair follow the maxulae. They consist of a small 
incisor-like endopodite and a slender jointed exopodite. 

Five pairs of walking- leg"S, all except the last bearing- 
gills on the basal joints, follow the maxill'peds. The first 
pair of legs bear large pincer-like appendages or chelae 
which tear the food into bits and put it into the mouth. In 
the basal segments of the last pair of legs of the male are 
the genital pores for the exit of the sperm cells. In the 
female the genital pores are in the basal segments of the 
next to last pair of legs. The abdominal appendages are 
called the pleopods or swimmerets. In the male the 
first and second pairs of pleopods are larger than the oth- 
ers and specially modified for the purpose of conveying the 
sperm cells from the openings of the reproductive organs 
to the eggs as they are laid by the female. In the female 
the pleopods serve to carry the eggs and the first two pairs 
are Very small or absent. The last set of abdominal 
appendages (iiropods) are large and fan-shaped and 
together with the telson form the tail. It will be noticed 



f^ 



ZOOLOGY. 

that in the successive segments of the crayfish similar 
parts recur. This serial repetition of parts among- animals 
is called metamerism. 

Digestive System. — The mouth leads by a short 
oesophagus into a large membranous sac, or stomach, sit- 
uated at the anterior end of the cephalothorax. The 
interior of the stomach is divided into two portions, an 
anterior one (the cardiac chamber) and a smaller pos- 
terior portion (the pyloric chamber). The inner surface 
of the cardiac portion is supplied with calcareous secretions, 
the "stomach teeth", which constitute the gastric mill. 
Food which consists for the most part of any dead organic 
matter is chewed by these teeth into fine bits and then 
passed into the pyloric chamber. Here the digestive glands 
empty their secretions into- the food. A yellow fringe-like 
structure, the digestive gland, fills most of the region 
surrounding the stomach. It connects with the alimentary 
canal by a pair of small tubes, the bile-ducts. From the 
posterior end of the stomach leads a short thick-walled 
tube, the smiall intestine, followed by a long straight 
tube, the large intestine, which opens to the exterior 
through the anus in the last segment of the body. 

Circulation and Respiration.— Within the poste- 
rior part of the cephalothorax close to the dorsal side is a 
pentagonal sac, the heart, contained within a delicate 
membrane, the pericardium. If the pericardium be 
removed, a pair of dorsal, two pairs of lateral, and a pair 
of ventral openings (ostia) will be found in the walls of 
the heart. Three blood vessels leading from the anterior 
end of the heart supply the eyes, antennae,^ stomach and 
digestive glands, and three from the posterior end supply 
the remainder of the body. The various arteries running 
to all parts of the body finally pour out the blood into the 



ZOOLOGY. 

body-cavity, where it flows freely in the spaces among the 
various tissues and org-ans. After the blood has bathed 
the body tissues it flows to the gills on either side, passing 
up the outer side of the gill through delicate thin-walled 
vessels where it is oxygenated. From the gills it flows 
back on the inner side through a large chamber, sinus, 
into the pericardium, thence through the ostia into the 
heart whence it is forced by muscular contraction into the 
arteries. This kind of a circulation where the blood is not 
enclosed in definite vessels throughout, is known as an 
open system. 

Reproductive System.— In the region of the cepha- 
lothorax below the heart are located the reprockictive 
organs. In the male they are whitish glandular masses, 
the testes, from each of which runs a long convoluted 
tube, the vas deferens, to the external openings at the 
base of the last pair of walking-legs. In the female the 
glandular mass, the ovary, has the same position as the 
testes; short, straight tubes, oviducts, lead to the external 
openings of the basal joint of the the third pair of walking- 
legs. Previous to the laying of the eggs the female rubs 
off all foreign matter from the abdominal appendages by 
means of the fifth pair of legs. When the eggs are ready 
to be laid a sticky secretion passes out of the oviducts and 
smears the pleopods of the abdomen. The eggs as they 
pass out are fertilized and caught on the pleopods, where 
they remain in clusters until they hatch out. 

Nervous System. — In the extreme anterior portion 
of the cephalothorax is a double ganglion, the supra- 
oesophageal ganglion, or brain, which sends out 
nerves to the antennae, antennules and eyes. From the 
brain a pair of nerves pass down around the oesophagus 
and unite below it to form a double chain of ganglia 

S 



ZOOLOGY. 

extending along the median ventral line to the last segment 
of the body. There is a ganglion for each segment and 
lateral nerves are given off from each ganglion. 

OTHER CRUSTACEANS. 

Most Crustaceans live in water, a few being found in 
damp soil or in other damp places. Some are fresh water 
animals and some marine. They vary in size from the 
tiny water fleas, a sixteenth of an inch long, to crabs two- 
feet across the shell and sixteen feet from tip to tip of the 
legs. Some are parasites on other animals, in some cases 
other Crustaceans. In structural character and body organ- 
ization the Crustaceans show the general characteristics 
of the Arthropods already mentioned. They differ from 
other Arthropods in the possession of gills for respiration 
and in the bi-ramose condition of the body appendages, 
each appendage, as a rule, consisting of a single basal 
segment from which arise two branches made up of one 
or more segments. 

Water Fleas (Cyclops).— The water-fleas are com- 
mon in the water of ponds and slow streams. Though 
small they may be readily seen with the unaided eye ; they 
are white, rather elongate, and have a rapid, jerky move- 
ment. The body is broadest in front and tapers posteriorly 
ending in two forked stylets. There are two pairs of 
antennae, a single median eye, mandibles, two pairs of 
maxillae, and five pairs of legs. There are no gills, the 
oxygen being absorbed through the surface of the body. 
The females have attached to the first abdominal segment 
on each side, an egg-sac. 

Wood Lice (Isopoda). — These animals are also 
known as pill bugs, damp bugs, and sow bugs. They 
are found almost everywhere in moist places, under 
stones and boards. They live a wholly terrestrial life, 



ZOOLOGY. 

feeding- upon decaying vegetable matter. The body is 
oval and convex above, rather purplish or grayish brown 
and smooth. Although they do not live in the water they 
breathe partly at least by means of gills. It is therefore 
necessary for them to live in a damp atmosphere so that 
the gill membranes may be kept damp. 

liObsters, Shrimps and Crabs (Decapoda).— 
These animals all resemble closely the crayfish in the char- 
acter and arrangement of the body parts although the 
shape of the body is different. 

The lobsters are marine, living on the rocky and sandy 
bottoms of shallow depths, feeding upon refuse matter. 
Ivive lobsters are brownish or greenish with blue mottling, 
but turn red when boiled. The shrimps and prawhs are 
similar to the lobsters but smaller and like them are used 
for food. 

The crabs differ from the lobsters and crayfishes in 
having the body short and broad instead of elongate. This 
is due to the special widening of the carapace and the 
marked shortening of the abdomen. The abdomen, more- 
over, is permanently bent underneath the body, so that but 
little of it is visible from the dorsal aspect. The number 
of abdominal legs or appendages is reduced. 

The spider-crabs are especially strange looking creat- 
ures with unusually long and slender legs and a compara- 
tively short body-trunk. The great spider-crab of Japan, 
the largest of Crustaceans, ^measures sixteen feet from tip 
to tip of extended legs. The "soft-shelled" crab is found 
along the Atlantic coast. It is soft-shelled only at the time 
of moulting. 

The little oyster-crabs, often found in shipped oysters, 
lives with the live oyster in the cavity enclosed by the 
oyster shell. They are not parasites preying upon the 



ZOOLOGY. 

body of the oyster but simply messmates feeding on par- 
ticles of food brought into the shell by the currents of 
water created by the oysters. This kind of relation exist- 
ing between animals is called commensalisin. The 
hermit crabs have the habit of carrying about with them, 
as a protective covering into which to withdraw, the spiral 
shell of some gastropod mollusk. The abdomen of the 
crab remains always in the cavity of the shell ; the head 
and thorax and legs project from the opening of the shell, 
to be withdrawn into it when the animal is alarmed. The 
abdomen being always in the shell and thus protected, 
loses the hard body-wall, and is soft, often curiously shaped 
and twisted to correspond to the cavity of the shell. It 
has no abdominal appendage except a pair on the hind- 
most segment modified into hooks for holding fast to the 
interior of the shell. As the hermit crab grows it takes up 
its abode in larger and larger shells, sometimes killing and 
removing piecemeal the original inhabitant. Soine hermit 
crabs always have attached to the shell certain kinds of 
sea-anemones. It is believed that both crab and sea- 
anemone derive advantage from this arrangement. The 
sea-anemone, which otherwise cannot move, is carried 
from place to place by the crab and so may get a larger 
supply of food, while the crab is protected from its enemies, 
the predaceous fishes, by the stinging threads of the sea- 
anemone, and also, perhaps, by the concealment of the 
shell its presence affords. This living together by two 
kinds of animals to their mutual advantage is called 
symbiosis. 

Barnacles. — These are Crustaceans which at first 
glanc6 are hardly recognizable as such. They live fixed 
in great numbers on the rocks between tide lines, or on the 
piles of wharves, bottoms of ships or even on the body 

8 



ZOOLOGY. 

wall of whales and other ocean animals. In the stalked 
forms there is a flexible stem or peduncle covered with a 
blackish, finely wrinkled skin bearing at its free end the 
greatly modified body of the barnacle. This body is en- 
closed in a sort of bivalved shell or carapace formed by a 
fold of the skin and stiffened by five calcareous plates. 
Within this curious shell is the compact, rather wormlike 
body-mass, showing little or no indication of segmentation. 
The legs, of which there are usually six pairs, are much 
modified, being long, feathery, and divided nearly to the 
base. These feathery feet project from the opened shell 
when the animal is undisturbed, and waving about in the 
water catch small animals which serve as the baaaacle's 
food. When disturbed the barnacle withdraws its feet and 
closes tightly its strong protecting shell. The acorn bar- 
nacles have no stalk, but look like a low, bluntly-pointed 
pyramid. This appearance is due to the converging 
arrangement of six calcareous plates of the body-wall. 

INS]eCTA: THE I<OCUST AND ITS AI^I^I^S. 

The locusts or grasshoppers are familiar insects all 
over the country. If a number of species be examined it 
will be found that some species have long, slender antennae, 
longer than the body, while others have short antannae. It 
is the latter kind which should be put under the head of 
the locusts. Our commonest locust is Melanoplus femur- 
rubrum (me-lan'-o-plus). 

External Structure. — The body of the locust is 
divisible into three principal regions, the liead, thorax 
and abdomen. Although the head is apparently com- 
posed of a single segment, it is really composed of six or 
seven body segments greatly modified and firmly fused 
together. It bears a pair of large compound eyes and 
three much smaller simple eyes or ocelli. The compound 



"m 



ZOOLOGY. 

eyes are not stalked and movable as in the crayfish but the 
structure is very similar, being- composed externally of 
many small hexagfonal facets. The outer covering, the 
cornea, is simply th§ cuticular covering of the body, in 
this place transparent and divided into small facets. Be- 
sides the eyes the head bears several movable appendages, 
namely, the antennae (one pair) and the mouth parts. 
The antennae consist of many segments. They are 
sense-organs used for feeling, smelling and in some cases 
for hearing. The mouth parts consist of an upper, broad, 
flap-like piece, the labrum ; a pair of hard, brown, toothed 
jaws, or mandibles ; a second pair of jaw-like structures, 
the maxillae, each of which is composed of several parts ; 
and an under, freely movable flap, the labium, also com- 
posed of several pieces. IJach maxilla bears a slender 
feeler or palpus composed of five segments. The labium 
bears a pair of similar palpi, composed of but three seg- 
ments. The mandibles and maxillae, which are the in- 
sect's jaws, move laterally instead of vertically as in most 
animals. 

The thorax is composed of three segments. The most 
anterior one, the prothorax, is freely movable and has a 
large hood or saddle-shaped piece, the pronotum, on its 
dorsal aspect, and a blunt-pointed tubercle on the ventral 
aspect. The foremost pair of legs is attached to the pro- 
thorax. The next segment is the mesothorax, which is 
immovably fused to the next thoracic segment. It bears 
the second pair of legs and the first pair of wings. The 
third segment, the metatborax, besides being fused to 
the mesothorax in front is similarly fused with the fore- 
most abdominal segment behind. It bears the second pair 
of wings and the third pair of legs, the hopping legs. 

10 



ZOOLOGY. 

Bach leg- is composed of a series of unequal segments. 
The segment nearest^ the body is subglobular and is called 
the coxa ; the second segment is smaller than the coxa 
and is called the troclianter; the third, known as the 
femur is larg-est of all ; the fourth, tibia, is long and 
slender ; and the next three, the last of which is the ter- 
minal one and bears a pair of claws and between them a 
little pad, the pulvillus, are called the tarsal segments. 
Most insects have five tarsal seg-ments. 

The front wing-s are oblong in shape and rather stiff. 
They are called the wing covers or tegmina, because they 
cover over and protect the hind wings which are more 
delicate and folded up like a fan. 

The abdomen is composed of a number of segments 
most of which resemble each other. The first segment 
has its dorsal and ventral parts widely separated by cavi- 
ties for the insertion of the hindmost legs. The ventral 
part of this segment is dovetailed into the ventral part of 
the metathorax and appears to be a part of it. In the 
dorsal part of this segment there is on each side a spot 
where the cuticle is only a thin membrane. At these 
places are the auditory org-ans or ears of the locust. The 
thin membranes are the tympanums. The abdominal 
seg-ments from the second to the eig-hth are ring-like in 
form and without appendages. There is on the side of 
each of these segments near its front margin a tiny open- 
ing, or pore, called a spiracle. These spiracles are the 
breathing pores of the locust which does not take air 
through its mouth or any other opening in the head. There is 
also a spiracle near each ear in the first abdominal segment, 
and one on each side of the mesothorax near the insertion 
of the middle legs. The terminal segments of the abdc- 

11 



ZOOLOGY. 

men are provided with certain processes which in the 
female compose the ovipositor or egg-laying organ. 

Digestive System. — The alimentary canal of the 
locust consists of a short oesophagus leading into a large 
thin-walled chamber, the crop, where the food accumu- 
lates preparatory to being ground up in the gizzard. From 
the gizzard the food is passed on to the stomach and thence 
on to the intestine. Two salivary glands furnish a dark- 
colored saliva and several spindle-shaped gastric caeca 
pour a digestive fluid into the stomach. 

Respiration and Circulation.— Air is taken in 
through the spiracles in the sides of the body and distributed 
to all the tissues of the body by means of fine air-tubes, 
tracheae. These air tubes are made rigid and incapable 
of collapsing by means of spiral threads of chitin in the 
walls of the tubes. 

The blood is collected in a dorsal vessel which is com- 
posed of a longitudinal series of very thin-walled chambers, 
each with a pair of lateral openings into the body-cavity 
and with terminal openings into the adjacent chambers. 
The blood which is colorless or greenish or yellowish, is 
sent forward through the successive heart chambers by 
regular contractions until it finally pours from the most 
anterior chamber freely into the body cavity. Here it bathes 
the body-tissues, flowing perhaps in regular paths, giving 
up food to the tissues and taking up food from the alimen- 
tary canal, until it finds its way through the lateral open- 
ings into the heart again. There are no arteries or veins. 
It will be seen that oxygen and carbon dioxide are not 
carried by the blood but by special air tubes. The respira- 
tory system of insects is very different from that of other 
animals. 

12 



ZOOLOGY. 

Nervous System, — The nervous system is very similar 
to that of the cray-fish. A brain or supra-oesophageal 

gaug^lion in the head supplies the eyes and antennae with 
nerves, and sends a pair of circum-oesopliageal com- 
missures around the oesophagus to the foremost gang-lion 
of the ventral chain. A double chain of ganglia are arranged 
along the ventral side of the body and distribute nerves to 
each segment. 

Excretory and Reproductive Organs.— Attached 
to the intestine are many fine brownish threads, the 
Malpighian tubules, which float freely in the blood of 
the body cavity. These are the excretory organs which 
separate the waste matter from the blood and pour it into 
the intestine. % 

The ovaries filled with spindle-shaped eggs lie in the 
body cavity on each side of the intestine in the female. In 
the males the testes occupy a similar position. 

Life-History and Habits.— The eggs of the locust 
are laid in the autumn in the ground. The female thrusts 
her strong ovipositor into the soil and by opening and shut- 
ting it, thus boring, pushes in the abdomen for about two 
thirds its length. The eggs, about one hundred, are then 
deposited in a capsule or pod. The young locusts hatch in 
the following spring. When just hatched they resemble the 
parent locust in general appearance and structure except 
the lack of wings, and are of course very small. During 
their growth to the adult form they molt ( shed the chitinous 
exoskeleton) five times. At first they are very clumsy 
looking with disproportionately large head and no wings. 
After each molt they resemble a little more closely the adult 
form than they did before. 

The locust and grasshoppers belong to the order 
Ortboptera ( straight- winged. ) In the same order are put 

13 



ZOOLOGY. 

the eric cets, katydids, walking-sticks, praying- mantes and 
cockroaches. Since the insects constitute about two thirds 
of all the living species of animals we can merely mention 
in this short treatise a few of the more important ones. 

OTHER INSECTS. 

Wingless Insects ( Thysanura. )— l^he simplest of 
all insects are the fishmoths and springtails, relatively small 
organisms covered with shining scales or hairs. The fish- 
moths are occasionally seen running about in houses feeding 
upon cloth and other substances. In addition to the ordinary 
appendages, the abdomen bears a pair of rudimentary legs. 

Orthoptera. — This order has been discussed under the 
head of ''locusts." 

Dragon-flies, May-flies, White Ants, etc. (Neu- 
roptera. ) — The members of this order possess four thin 
and membranous wings incapable of being folded. These 
possess a network of delicate nervures, giving the name 
neuroptera (nerve-winged) to the group. All the forms 
mentioned above but the white ants lay their eggs in the 
water, and the developing larvae spend their lives in this 
medium until the time comes for their complete metamor- 
phosis into the adult. 

The white ants are not true ants but possess many 
similar habits. Associated in great companies they exca- 
vate winding galleries in old logs and stumps. Besides the 
winged queens and kings there are wingless workers which 
excavate, care for the young and otherwise labor for the 
good of the others; and the soldiers, huge-headed forms 
whose strong jaws protect the colony. 

The Bugs (Hemiptera. )— These insects are all char- 
acterized by their highly specialized sucking mouth-parts. 
The palpi of both, maxillae and labium are wholly wanting 
in Hemiptera and the flexible needle-like maxillae and 

14 



ZOOLOGY. 

mandibles are enclosed in the tubular labium. Some of the 
members of this order have the basal halves of the anterior 
pair of wing-s composed of thicker chitin than the outer 
halves. This characteristic gives to the order the name 
Hemiptera ( half -winged. ) It includes a large number of 
well-known injurious species, such as the chinch-bug", which 
occurs in immense numbers in the Mississippi valley, suck- 
ing the juices from the wheat and corn; the grape Phyl- 
loxera, so destructive to the vines of Europe and California; 
the scale insects, the worst insect pests of oranges; the 
squash-bug and cabbage-bug and a host of others. Some 
species, the lice and bed-bugs, are predaceous, sucking the 
blood of other animals. The water-striders, water-boat- 
men, back-swimmers and giant water-bugs are all preda- 
ceous aquatic species. The cicadas, or seventeen-year 
locusts, are familiar insects which sing so shrilly from 
trees in the summer. The plant-lice ( Aphis ) are small soft- 
bodied Hemiptera, which have both winged and wingless 
forms. They produce honey-dew, a sweetish substance 
much liked by ants, and the lice are often visited, and some- 
times specially cared for, by the ants for the sake of the 
honey-dew. 

The Flies (Diptera.)— The group of the Diptera 
(meaning two winged) includes the gnats, mosquitoes, 
fleas, house-flies, horse-flies, and a vast number of related' 
forms. Only a single pair of wings is present, the second 
pair being rudimentary or fashioned into short thread-like 
appendages known as balancers, though they probably act 
as sensory organs and are not directly concerned with 
flight. The mouth-parts are adapted for piercing and suck- 
ing (as in the mosquitoes) or for rasping and lapping (as 
in the blowfly.) 

IS 



ZOOLOGY. 

The blowfly lays its Gggs on decaying- meat and the 
white footless mag-g-ots hatch in about twenty-four hours. 
They feed voraciously and become f ull-g-rown in a few days. 
They then change to pupae, which are brown and seed-like, 
being- completely inclosed in a chitinous case which wholly 
conceals the form of the developing- fly. The house-fly has 
a life-history similar to that of the blowfly except that its 
eggs are deposited on manure. The mosquito lays its eggs 
in little boat-shaped masses in the water. In a few days 
the larvae "wrigglers" issue and swim about. After a 
while it chang-es into the pupae, which, instead of being 
quiescent as with most flies, can swim about. When ready 
to change into the adult mosquito the pupa floats on the 
surface back uppermost. The cuticle breaks along the back 
and the delicate mosquito comes out, rests upon the pupal 
skin until its wings are dry and then flies away. 

The Beetles ( Coleoptera. )— These are all readily 
recognized by the two firm horny sheaths enclosing the 
two membranous wings, which are alone the organs of 
flight. The mouth is provided with jaws which are used in 
gnawing. Some prey upon noxious insects or upon decay- 
ing vegetable or animal matter and are often highly bene- 
ficial; but others attack our trees and domestic animals, and 
work incalculable damage. 

In some of the stag— or wood-beetles, the adults are 
often found crawling about on or beneath the barks of trees, 
living on sap or small animals. The eggs laid in these 
situations develop into grub-like larvae, which bore their 
way through living or dead wood and in this condition some- 
times live four or five years. They then transform into 
quiescent pupae, which finally burst their shells and emerge 
in the adult form. Others like water-beetles, and the whirli- 

16 



ZOOLOGY. 

gig-beetles, whose mazy motions are often seen on the 

surface of quiet streams, pass the larval period in the water. 

The Moths and Butterflies (Lepidoptera.)— These 

insects are characterized by their wings (four in number) 
being covered with beautiful overlapping scales; and the 
mouth parts reduced to a long nectar-sucking proboscis com- 
posed of the two interlocking maxillae. They undergo a 
complete metamorphosis and their larvae are the familiar 
caterpillars of the garden and field. These larvae have 
biting mouth-parts and feed on vegetation, some of them 
being very injurious, for example the army-worms, cut- 
worms, codlin moth worms ( which infest apples) etc. The 
adult moths and butterflies taste only liquid food or no food 
at all. The eggs are usually laid on tJtie food-plan% of the 
larva; the larva feeds on the leaves of this plant, grows, 
molts several times, and pupates either in the ground or in 
a silken cocoon or simply attached to a branch or leaf. 

The Ants, Bees and Wasps (Hymenoptera.)— 
These insects are characterized by four membranous wings, 
by biting and sucking mouth-parts and the possession of a 
sting usually by the female. All undergo a complete 
metamorphosis. 

The ants live in communities, each colony consisting 
of the queen, several young winged males and females 
destined as kings and queens to form new colonies, and of 
a great number of wingless sterile females, the workers. 
The workers construct the greater part of the nests which 
often consists of extensive galleries, nurseries and grana- 
ries excavated in wood or in the earth, They also attend to 
the acquisition of food. 

Certain species of ants make carefully planned attacks 
upon other weaker forms. The young are carried off, at 
times only after a fierce and prolonged struggle, and all are 

17 



ZOOLOGY. 

soon eaten, or a few may be allowed to develop and act as 
slaves. Some species are unable to exist without servants, 
which feed them, wash them and otherwise minister to their 
comfort. 

In some of their raids numerous plant-lice are often 
captured and carried into the nest. These so-called * 'ant- 
cows," are carefully tended, and in return yield up a tiny 
drop of a sugary fluid. 

The egg's laid by the queen develop into white worm-like 
creatures, which ordinarily spin cocoons when about to 
become pupae. These are incorrectly called "ant eggs." 
Many, probably on account of unsufficient nourishment 
never develop reproductive organs. They become the 
workers. 

Among the bees we find a considerable number which 
lead solitary lives, excavating tunnels in earth or wood. 
Others constitute a band of worthless insects which steal 
their food from their more industrious relations, in whose 
nests they also secretly deposit their eggs, leaving the young 
to be nourished with food which rightly belongs to others. 

The bumble-bees usually build in the ground and form 
colonies consisting of a queen and from twenty to two 
hundred workers. Regular combs are not constructed, the 
young at first feeding on pollen masses or **bee bread" and 
finally spinning cocoons. In the late summer, males and 
females appear, but as winter comes on, all perish except 
the queens, which seek a sheltered place, and in the spring 
revive to establish new colonies. 

In the wild state the honey-bees dwell in cavities of trees 
and other protected places, where they form colonies, con- 
sisting of the queen, several hundred males or drones, and 
a thousand or more sterile females or workers. All work 
for the colony. To each worker is assigned a definite task 

18 



'ty 



ZOOLOGY. 

which is never shirked. It must collect honey, supply the 
wax for making- the comb, take care of the brood, or in other 
ways minister to the welfare of the community. On the 
queen devolves the entire task of egg-laying. The drones 
or males fertilize most of the eggs, and are then driven out 
from the hive. The eggs unfertilized by the drones are 
placed in large cells and the young, fed on pollen, develop 
into males. The fertilized eggs may produce queens or 
workers at the discretion of the queen. If the latter are 
desired, the eggs are placed in small cells with scant supply 
of food, which apparently causes the reproductive system to 
remain undeveloped. The same eggs, if placed in the large 
queen cells and supplied with highly nutritious food, would 
have developed into queens. When the latter app^r they 
are vigorously attacked and killed by the parent if not pro- 
tected by the workers. If the young queen survives, the 
old queen departs with many of her subjects, and collects 
them into a dense swarm attached to the limb of a tree, 
where they remain until scouts return to conduct them to 
their new home. 

The wasps may live solitary or in communities. The 
digger-wasp gnaws tunnels in the wood or earth and lays 
an egg at the inner end, places within easy reach a supply 
of spiders, caterpillars, etc., and leaves the young to shift 
for itself. 

The mud-wasps or mud-daubers build nests of mud on 
the rafters of barns and houses. 

Yellow- jackets and hornets live in companies which 
consist of males, females and workers. Their nests are 
variously situated and constructed, but all agree in being 
composed of a kind of paper made from weathered wood 
which the wasps scrape from logs and fences, mix with 
saliva and flatten out into thin sheets. 

19 



ZOOLOGY. 

MYRIAPODA— THE MII,I,IPEDS AND CENTIPEDS. 

The Myriapods are land animals breathing by means 
of tracheae like the insects. In them the body-segments are 
nearly uniform in character with the exception of the head, 
which, as in insects bears the mouth-parts and antennae. 
There is no grouping of the body-segments into regions 
except as the head is opposed to the rest of the body. The 
presence of true legs on all the segments of the hinder 
region of the body and the lack of the three-region division 
of the body are the principal characteristics which disting- 
uish myriapods from insects. 

The millipeds are cylindrical in shape, have two pairs 
of legs on most of the body-segments and are vegetable 
feeders. 

The centipeds are flattened and have a single pair of 
legs on each body-ring. They are predaceous in habit, 
catching and killing insects, snails, etc. They can run 
rapidly, and have the first pair of legs modified into a pair 
of poison-claws, which are bent forward so as to lie near the 
mouth. 

Some centipeds living in warm regions grow to a length 
of twelve inches or more. The "bite" or wound made by 
the poison-claws is fatal to insects and other small animals, 
their prey, and painful or even dangerous to man. 

ARACHNIDA — SCORPIONS, SPIDERS, MITES AND TICKS. 

The class Arachnida is composed of Arthropods whose 
body-segments are grouped into two regions, a cephalothorax 
bearing the mouth-parts, eyes and legs, and an abdomen. 
The segments composing these two parts are so fused that, 
except in the scorpions, they are usually indistinguishable. 
There are no antennae, the eyes are simple, mouth-parts 
fitted for biting, and there are four pairs of legs. Respira- 
tion is affected by means of tracheae, or lung-books which 

20 



ZOOLOGY. 

consist of sacs containing many blood-filled, leaf-like plat^^ 
placed together like the leaves of a book. 

The scorpions have the posterior six segments of the 
abdomen much narrower than the seven anterior segments, 
and forming a tail which bears at its tip a poison-fang or 
sting. This sting is used to kill prey, insects and other small 
animals. The tail can be darted forwards over the body to 
strike prey which has been previously seized by the large 
pincer-like maxillary palpi. The sting is painful but not 
dangerous to man. 

The mites are mostly small, obscure animals, which 
live more or less parasitically. The common red spider of 
house plants as well as the sugar- and cheese-mii^s, the 
dreaded itch-mite and the chigger are familiar examples of 
these degraded arachnids, and the wood-ticks and dog- and 
chicken-ticks are common examples of the larger blood- 
sucking forms. The body in both mites and ticks is very 
compact, the two body-regions, the cephalothorax and 
abdomen, being closely fused. 

The spiders have the abdomen distinctly set off from 
the cephalothorax. The eyes vary in number and arrange- 
ment ; the mandibles are large, each being composed of 
two parts, a basal hair-covered part, the falx, and a ter- 
minal smooth, shining, slender, sharp-pointed part, the 
fang, which is movably articulated with the falx. In the 
falx is a poison-sac from which poison flows through the 
hollow fang and out at its tip. Just behind the mandibles 
are a pair of maxillae provided with long, jointed palps 
which are often mistaken for legs. The legs are eight in 
number, each consisting of seven joints. The spinnerets 
which are situated at the top of the abdomen, are six in 
number and are like little short fingers. They have at 
their tips many fine little spinning-tubes from each of 

21 



ZOOLOGY. 

which a silken thread issues. These many fine threads 
fuse as they issue to form a single strong cable, or some- 
times a flat, rather broad, band. The silk comes from 
many silk-glands in the abdomen. The spiders may be 
divided into two groups, viz., the wandering or hunting 
spiders which do not spin webs to catch their prey, and the 
sedentary or web-weaving spiders, which spin snares to 
catch their prey. The wandering spiders can spin silk, 
however, and often do so to line their burrows, to make 
nests or to make egg-sacs. 

The harvestmen, or daddy-long-legs, are small-bodied, 
long-legged creatures which resemble in general appear- 
ance the spiders. They differ from them, however, in the 
possession of claws corresponding to the smaller ones of 
the scorpion, and in their method of respiration which is 
similar to that of insects. 



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22 



ZOOLOGY. 



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ZOOLOGY. 



OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

(FOURTH PAPER.) 

1. What are the principal subdivisions of the Arthro- 
pods? What are the g-eneral characteristics of this branch? 

2. Describe the appendages of the crayfish. 

3. Define the terms metamerism, telson, cephalo- 
thorax, rostrum, maxilliped. 

4. Describe the digestive system of the crayfish. 

5. How does the crayfish breathe? Trace the blood 
throughout the circulation. 

6. Describe the egg-laying process in the crayfish. 

7. Mention some other common Crustaceans. How 
does a crab differ from a crayfi.sh? 

8. What is conimensalisin? Give an illustration. 

9. What is symbiosis? Give an illustration. 

10. In what respects does a grasshopper or locust re- 
semble a crayfish? 

11. In what respects does a locust differ from a cray- 
fish? 

12. How do insects breathe? 

13. How many and what mouth parts has a typical 
insect? 

14. Give the general characteristics of the Hemiptera. 

15. How can the Diptera always be recognized? 

16. Give the life -history of the house fly. Of the 
mosquito. 

17. How can you always recognize the Coleoptera? 

18. In the Lepidoptera how are the mouths specially 
modified? 

19. Give the general characteristics of the Hymenoptera. 

20. How can a centiped be distinguished from a milliped? 
21 How do spiders differ from the Hexapods? 

24 



PHYSICS. 

(FOURTH PAPER.) 
SOUND. 

The term sound is used in two senses — the subjective, 
that which has reference to the mind ; and the objective, 
that which refers only to surrounding- objects. In the first 
meaning", sound is the sensation produced upon the organ 
of hearing by vibrations in matter. In this use of the 
word, there can be no sound where there is no ear to catch 
the vibrations. In the second sense, sound is those vibra- 
tions of matter capable of producing a sensation upon the 
org-an of hearing-. In this use of the word, there c^n be a 
sound in the absence of the ear. An object falls and the 
vibrations are produced, though there may be no organ of 
hearing to receive an impression from them ; thus it is 
seen that the word sound is used not only to denote the 
sensations, but sometimes to denote the cause of the sensa- 
tions. 

Sound-waves are waves in any medium, usually the 
air, capable of producing the sensation of sound. The 
wavelength is the distance the wave travels in one period, 
as one second of time. 

In air, the waves have been shown to be composed of 
condensations and rarefractions, and the vibrations are 
transverse ; that is, they take place in planes at some ang-le 
to the path of the wave. 

It is seen from the character of a sound-wave that elas- 
ticity is necessary in a sound medium, in order that it may 
transmit waves composed of condensations and rarefrac- 
tions. The greater the elasticity of the medium, the greater 
the facility and rapidity with which it transmits waves. 



PHYSICS . 

The velocity of sound depends on the elasticity and 
density of the medium through which it passes. The 
greater the density, the more molecules to be set in mo- 
tion, and hence the slower the transmission. The velocity 
of the sound-wave is directly proportional to the square 
root of the elasticity of the medium, and inversely propor- 
tional to the square root of its density. 

Sound travels through the air ( at the freezing point ) 
at the rate of 1,090 feet per second. A rise in temperature 
diminishes the density of the air, and thus sound travels 
faster in warm and slower in cold air. The increase of 
velocity for each degree C. is about 24 inches per second 
(23.9 inches. ) 

Sound-waves travel in water about four times faster 
than in air, and about sixteen times as fast in iron and 
glass. The decrease in velocity due to the increase in 
density, in these substances, is more than compensated 
for by their greater incompressibility. Pitch and intensity 
have very little effect upon the velocity of sound-waves. 

The energy of a sound-wave is proportional to the 
square of the amplitude of the vibration of particles, or 
since the energy of a moving particle varies as the square 
of the velocity, the intensity of the effect upon the auditory 
nerve is proportional to the square of the maximum veloc- 
ity of the vibrating particles. Energy is also shown to 
increase with the density of the medium, and to vary in- 
versely as the square of the distance from the source. 

In speaking tubes, the sound-waves which enter the 
tube are prevented from expanding ; thus the energy of 
the sound-waves is not affected by distance. There is, how- 
ever, some loss by friction of the air against the sides of 
the tube, and by internal friction due to viscocity of the air. 



PHYSICS. 

When a sound-wave strikes against the surface of an- 
other medium, a portion goes on while the rest is reflected. 
The law which governs reflected sound is that of reflected 
motion — the angle of incidence is equal to that of reflec- 
tion. An echo is a familiar illustration of the reflection of 
sound-waves. The time that elapses between a sound and 
its echo is the time required for sound to travel twice the 
distance between the source of the sound and the reflecting 
body. * 'Whispering galleries," constructed on the prin- 
ciple of concave mirrors, or wave-condensers, also illus- 
trate this phenomenon. Two reflectors may be placed in 
such a position that sound-waves starting from one focus 
shall after two reflections be converged at the other focus. 
By this means the slightest noise can be heard di^inctly 
at a distance of two or three hundred feet. 

A resonator is a body possessing the property of 
absorbing the vibrations of another sonorous body and 
vibrating in unison with it. Familiar examples are the 
organ pipe, reinforcing the feeble sounds of the reed, and 
the vibrations of the box of a violin in response to those 
of the strings. 

Interference. — If two sounds meet in exactly oppo- 
site phases, and the forces are equal, they will balance 
each other and silence will ensue. 

Noise and Music— When a body which strikes the 
air gives it but a single blow, the ear receives only a single 
shock, and the result is called a noise. Several shocks 
received slowly in succession, will be distinguished only as 
so many separate noises. If a great number of blows be 
struck in a very short time, so rapidly that the ear is una- 
ble to distinguish the individual shocks, the effect is that 
of one continuous sound, which may be pleasing to the 
ear ; if so, it is called a musical sound. This continuity 



PHYSICS. 

alone does not necessarily make a sound musical ; there - 
must be regularity both in the periodicity and the intensity 
of the vibrations or impulses. 

Pitch.. — The greater the number of vibrations per sec- 
ond, or the shorter the wave-length, the higher the pitch. 
The pitch of a sound produced by twice as many vibra- 
tions as that of another sound is called the octave of the 
latter. The definite number of steps between a sound and 
its octave are called musical intervals ; this gives rise to 
the so-called diatonic scale, or gamut. The whole scale of 
pitch may be regarded as a series of octaves referred to 
some one tone called the key note. 

Since in a given medium all sounds travel with the 
same velocity, the rate of vibration must determine the 
wave length. If the sounding body vibrates 112 times per 
second, 112 sound-waves will be started each second. If 
sound travels at the rate of 1120 feet per second, the total 
length of the 112 vibrations, then, must be 1120 feet, or the 
length of each wave must be 10 feet. The length of the 
sound-waves may be used to measure pitch ; the greater 
the wave-length the lower the pitch. If the sounding body 
and the listening ear approach each other rapidly the 
sound-waves will beat upon the ear with greater rapidity. 
The opposite is true when the two bodies recede from each 
other. These facts easily explain why the pitch of a loco- 
motive is higher when the train is rapidly approaching 
than when rapidly moving away. 

The range of hearing of different persons varies. The 
lower limit is probably representedby 16 to 30 vibrations per 
second for most persons. The upper limit is about 40,000 
vibrations per second. The range of the human voice 
depending upon the number of vibrations of the vocal 
chords is understood by all. It is equally true, though 

4 



PHYSICS 

perhaps not as well known, that some persons are unable 
to distinguish or hear low sounds that are distinctly audi- 
ble to other persons. Others may be unable to hear sounds 
of hig-h pitch ; their mechanism of hearing does not respond 
to sounds of short wave-length. 

Musical instruments may be classified as (1) Stringed 
instruments; (2) Wind instruments; (3) Instruments in 
which the vibrator is a membrane or plate. 

Vibrations of Strings.— By experiment it has been 
shown that the frequency of vibration varies: (1) In- 
versely as the length of the string; (2) Inversely as the 
diameter of the string ; (3) Directly as the square root of 
the tension ; (4 ) Inversely as the square root of the density 
of the material of which the string or wire is made. The 
pitch of a vibrating string rises as its length is diminished, 
or its diameter diminished, or its tension increased. 

Tones and Notes. — If a sound is composed of many 
tones it is called a note. No ordinary musical instrument 
is capable of producing a simple tone. In other words, 
when a musical instrument is sounded not only is the 
primary, tone produced, but also a series of tones, each tone 
of the series being of less intensity than the preceding. 
The primary tone of a note is usually sufficiently intense 
to be the most prominent and is called the fundamental 
tone. Suppose the lowest note of a piano and its sharp 
are struck simultaneously. A peculiar throbbing sound 
results, caused by an alternate rising and sinking in loud- 
ness. Each recurrence of the maximum is called a beat. 

Discord and Harmony.— Discord is often produced 
by two sounding instruments when struck simultaneously. 
It may be explained by the part that the sounds produce 
beats which do not coalesce because the interval between 
them is too long. To produce absolutely perfect harmony 



PHYSICS. 

the two tones must be in unison. Not only may two notes 
whose relative vibration frequently harmonize but three 
or four may concur with the same result. A sound pro- 
duced by three or four perfect notes is called in music a 
chord. A consonant chord is a concord ; a dissonant 
chord is a discord. 

Wind Instruments.— The pitch of vibrating- air- 
columns varies also with the length, and (1) in both 
stopped and open pipes the number of vibrations is in- 
versely proportional to the length of the pipe. (2) An 
open pipe gives a note an octave higher than a closed pipe 
of the same length. The sounds produced by wind instru- 
ments are made by columns of air vibrating in tubes called 
pipes. The organ pipe is an example of this class of in- 
struments. One end of the pipe is always open and the air 
column at this end is set in vibration either by driving a 
current of air against a thin lip which partially covers an 
opening in the side of the tube or by driving the current 
of air against a metal tongue. 

Sounding Plates. The method of studying the 
vibrations of plates is due to Chladni, after whom the 
plates and figures are named. The vibration of plates can 
easily be illustrated. Place a glass or brass plate upon an 
upright support. Strew some fine sand upon the plate and 
then draw a rosined bow steadily over one of its edges. At 
the same time touch any edge of the plate with the tip of 
the index finger. A musical sound will be produced and 
the sand will collect in two rows. By changing- the posi- 
tion of the finger and the point at which the bow touches 
the plate other sand figures may be produced. 

The Phonograph. — The phonograph is an instru- 
ment for recording sounds and repeating them. A mouth- 
piece receives the sound-waves and directs them upon a 

6 



PHYSICS . 

thin metallic disk on the under side of which is a short 
metallic point or style. The style records the vibrations 
of the disk on tin foil which is revolved on a cylinder. On 
the surface of the cylinder is a spiral groove running- 
around the cylinder like the thread of a screw. When the 
crank is turned the cylinder advances just rapidly enoug-h 
to allow the groove to keep under the style. By this means 
the style is enabled to follow the grooves and records the 
vibrations by making- a series of dots in the tin foil. To 
enable the instrument to repeat the sounds it records, the 
cylinder is turned back as far as it was advanced and then 
turned forward again. By following- the indentations in 
the tin foil the style throws the metallic membr^e into 
vibration, thus reproducing- the sound. The foil may be 
preserved and its records read long- after they have been 
made. 

Vocal Organs. — The organ of voice is a reed instru- 
ment situated at the top of the trachea. Two elastic bands, 
called the vocal cords, are stretched across the larynx, 
being attached to the thyroid cartilage in front. While one 
is breathing, the air passage between the cords is freely 
open, but when he speaks or sings they are brought nearly 
together and many times only a slit like opening is left. A 
sort of double reed is thus formed and vibrates when air is 
forced through the narrow passage. The sounds are low or 
high according to the tension of the cords which is controlled 
by muscular action. The mouth and the nasal cavities aid 
in the production of the voice. By varying width and length 
they adapt themselves to the pitch of the notes produced by 
the vocal cords. 

The Ear.— The IJar is divided into three parts,— the 
external ear, the tympanum, and the labyrinth. The tym- 
panum (middle ear) contains three small bones, — malleus. 



■3^(3 



PHYSICS. 

incus and stapes. The stapes is attached to a membrane 
that stretches over an opening- that leads into the labyrinth. 
The malleus is attached to the tympanic membrane. The 
labyrinth consists of three parts, — the vestibule, the semi- 
circular canals and the cochlea. The labyrinth is filled with 
fluid in which are spread out the delicate fibres of the audi- 
tory nerve. The organ of Corti is really the essential organ 
of hearing. It consists of fine hair like processes connected 
with filaments of the auditory nerve. These processes are 
easily set in vibration by the peculiar wave like motions of 
the endolymph. 

Suppose that sound waves impinge upon the ear at the 
rate of 1000 per second. The tympanic membrane is very 
elastic and vibrates exactly 1000 times per second. These 
vibrations are transmitted by the chain of bones in the 
tympanum to the membrane that closes the labyrinth and 
thence to the fluid contained in the labyrinth. The delicate 
fibres of the organ of Corti are thrown into sympathetic 
vibration; these fibres stir the nerve filaments which in turn 
transmit the impression to the brain. In some unknown 
way these disturbances are interpreted as sound. 

OPTICS. 

Optics is the study of light. Tuiight is that phenome- 
non of radiant energy capable of producing the effect of 
vision. 

Bodies become visible by means of the light they 
send to the eye of the observer. Visible bodies are either 
luminous or non-luminous. 

A luminous body is one which emits its own light 
example, the sun, the carbon of an electric lamp when white 
hot, etc. Non-luminous bodies are those which are visible 
only as they reflect light from a luminous body, in which 
case it is said to be illuminated. It is apparent that most 

8 



PHYSICS. 

bodies are non-luminous, and it is also readily seen that 
they may be made luminous by sufficiently raising the 
temperature. 

Transparent bodies are those which will allow light 
to pass through them, as air, glass, etc. Those substances 
which will not transmit light are said to be opaque. 
Those which transmit light very imperfectly are called 
translucent, as oiled paper, ground glass, and very thin 
plates of metals, etc. 

I/ight travels in straight lines when the medium is of 
uniform composition and density (homogeiieous). 

A ray is a single line of light; a pencil is a group of 
rays. A pencil is said to be divergent when all the rays 
proceed from a single point; if all the rays proceed toward 
a single point they are called convergent. A pencil is 
called a beam of light if the rays are parallel or practi- 
cally so. 

A shadow is the space excluded from the light by the 
interference of an opaque body. 

If the luminous body has considerable magnitude, the 
shadow of the opaque body will consist of two parts, the 
umbra, which is the space from which the light is wholly 
excluded, and the penumbra, from which the light is 
partially excluded. 

The velocity of light is about 186,000 miles per 
second. This is based on the estimates of Roemer (1675), 
Bradley (1729), Fizeau (1849), Foucault (1850), whose re- 
sults, by different methods, so nearly agree that any serious 
error cannot exist. 

The intensity of radiation received by any surface is 
measured by the quantity falling upon a unit of area at 
that point. The intensity of light at a given point of a 
surface diminishes as the angle made by the surface with 



PHYSICS. 

the rays of light decreases, and varies ( 1) inversely as the 
square of the distance between the surface and the source 
of radiation; and (2) directly as the illuminating power of 
the source. 

The unit of illuminating power most in use is the 
standard candle, a sperm candle one-sixth of a pound in 
weight and burning at the rate of 120 grains per hour. 
The candle power of any light is measured by comparison 
with this unit. 

Rays of light falling upon the surface of a body may 
be thrown back by the surface into the medium from which 
they come. The reflection may be either regular or 
irregular. 

Reg'ular Reflection. — If a ray falls upon a polished 
surface it is reflected in a definite direction. The angle of 
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection and both 
angles lie in the same plane. A polished surface making 
a perfect reflector would be a perfect mirror and therefore 
invisible. 

Diffusion or irregular reflection is the result of 
the incidence of radiant energy upon irregular surfaces. 
It is in this way that non-luminous bodies are made visible: 
i. e., by the light they diffuse, 

Plane Mirrors. — Any smooth surface used to reflect 
light is called a mirror. Ordinary plane mirrors are made 
by attaching a metallic surface, as an amalgam of tin and 
mercury, to the reflecting surface of a plate of glass. This 
metallic surface becomes the reflecting surface. The image 
of any point of an object of sensible magnitude placed 
before a plane mirror seems to be as far behind the mirror 
as the corresponding point is before it. The nearer the 
point is to the mirror, the nearer will be the image of the 
point. In this way the inversion of images seen in still, 

10 



PHYSICS. 

clear water is explained. Although objects and their 
images agree in size and shape, there is an inversion of 
the order of the parts. 

Multiple images may be formed by placing two 
plane mirrors facing each other. Kach image acts as a 
material object in its relation to the other mirror, and an 
observer looking into either mirror sees a row of images in 
a straight line, diminishing in brightness, since at each 
reflection a part of the light is lost by absorption. When 
the mirrors form with each other an angle, an aliquot part 
of 360°, the number of images are always one less 360° 
divided by the number of degrees in the included angle if 
the quotient is an even number. 

A spherical mirror is a portion of a spherical surf ace 
capable of reflecting light. Such a mirror is concave if 
the inner surface is the reflecting surface; a convex mir- 
ror if the outer surface is the reflecting one. 

The center of the mirror is the center of the surface. 
The middle point of the surface is called the vertex. The 
straight line joining the center of the mirror and the ver- 
tex is the principal axis; any other line drawn from the 
surface through the center is called a secondary axis, 
liither the principal or the secondary axis is normal to the 
surface of the mirror. An angle formed by two secondary 
axes at the center of a spherical mirror is called the 
aperture of the mirror. In practice this angle is not 
greater than 10°. 

A focus is a point from which rays of light diverge, 
or towards which they converge. A real focus is a point 
at which light converges; a virtual focus is a point from 
which light appears to proceed. 

Parallel rays of light (rays parallel to the principal 
focus ) falling upon a concave mirror of small aperture are 

11 



PHYSICS. 

« 

reflected to a point very nearly halfway between the vertex 
and the center of the mirror; this point is the principal 
focus of the mirror. 

If the focus is in front of a concave mirror it is real; 
if behind the mirror it is virtual. Incident rays parallel to 
the principal axis of a concave mirror pass through the 
principal focus after reflection. When the rays diverge 
from the center of curvature they fall perpendicularly upon 
the mirror and are therefore reflected back upon them- 
selves. When the rays are divergent from a point beyond 
the center of curvature, the focus falls on the same axis 
between the principal focus and the center of curvature. 
When the rays diverge from a point between the center of 
curvature and the principal focus, the focus is on the same 
axis beyond the center of curvature. If the rays diverge 
from a point between the principal focus and the mirror, 
the reflected rays diverge as if from a point back of the 
mirror. If the rays diverge from the principal focus, the 
reflected rays are parallel, and hence there is no focus. 

When rays parallel to the principal axis fall upon a 
convex mirror, the reflected rays seem to diverge from the 
principal focus, which is behind the mirror. This is a 
virtual focus. The convex mirror increases the divergence, 
or decreases the convergence of light which falls upon it. 
Images made by convex mirrors are always erect, dimin- 
ished and virtual. 

The failure of rays to meet accurately at a given point, 
is called spherical aberration. It is due to the curva- 
ture of the mirror which produces an indistinctness or 
blurring of the image. Only parabolic mirrors, or those 
conforming to them in curvature, are free from this defect. 

Refraction. — Rays of light passing from one medium 
to another are bent or refracted, at the surface that separates 

12 



PHYSICS. 

the two media. When it passes obliqely from one medium 
to one of greater refractive power, it is bent at the point 
of incidence toward a line perpendicular to the surface of 
separation. When it passes in the same way to another 
medium of less refractive power, it is bent from the per- 
pendicular. It is also a law of refraction that the angles 
of incidence and refraction lie in the same plane — a plane 
perpendicular to the refracting- surface. Refraction explains 
why a stick partly immersed in clear water appears bent; 
why pools, etc., appear shallower than they are; why coins 
and other bright objects are deceptive as to their location 
in clear water, etc. 

A lens is a transparent body, usually glass, whose 
refracting surfaces are curved, or one is curved and the 
other plain. 

There are two classes of lenses, with three varieties in 
each class: ( 1 ) Converging lenses, which are the thickest 
at the axis; the three lenses of this class are the double- 
convex, plano-convex and meniscus. ( 2. ) Diverging lenses, 
which are the thickest at the edges; these are the double- 
concave, the plano-concave, and the concavo-convex. When 
a ray passes through a lens it is always refracted toward 
the thickest part of the lens. 

If rays of sunlight pass through a converging lens par- 
allel to the principal axis, they are refracted very nearly 
to a focus on the axis on the opposite side of the lens from 
the sun. 

If rays pass similarly through a diverging lens, after 
refraction they will diverge as if they came from a point 
on the same side of the lens as the sun. 

By the dispersion of light, a phenomenon first investi- 
gated by Newton (1672), a ray of light is separated into a 
number of differently colored Vays. The result of the 

13 



PHYSICS. 

analysis of sunlight is a broad band of colors called the 
Solar Spectrum. Newton distinguished in the solar spec- 
trum seven primary colors; red, orange, yellow, green, blue, 
indigo and violet. The colors increase in refrangibility 
from red to violet. The differences arise from differences 
of wave-length, the angle of deviation increasing as the 
wave-length diminishes. 

The rainbow exhibits a solar spectrum on a grand scale. 
There are sometimes two bows, a primary and a secondary. 
The former is red on the outside and violet on the inside; 
the secondary bow is fainter than the primary and the order 
of the colors is reversed. In the primary bow, each ray 
which enters a water drop is twice refracted by the drop and 
totally reflected at the back surface of the drop. The 
secondary bow is formed by light which has been twice 
refracted and twice reflected in the drop. 

The colors of the spectrum ordinarily overlap one 
another. A pure spectrum may be produced by admitting 
the light through a narrow slit, and directing it to the prism 
through a double convex lens. This spectrum is crossed at 
frequent intervals by groups of well-defined dark lines called 
Fraunhof er's lines, so named from the German optician 
who first carefully examined them. They are due to the 
absence of certain kinds of light in the solar spectrum. 

Spectrum analysis is a method of determining sub- 
stances by means of their spectra. The position of the 
bright lines in the spectrum of a vapor or gas, depends solely 
on the nature of the gas. No two vapors or gases give the 
same set of bright lines. This method of chemical analysis 
is the best known in point of delicacy. 

OPTICAI, INSTRUMENTS. 

The Human Eye.— A tough membrane of which the 
cornea is a continuation forms the outer coat of the eye and 

14 



PHYSICS. 

is known as the Sclerotic coat, or the **white of the eye." 
Between the sclerotic coat and the retina in the choroid 
coat which consists for the most part of a black pigment 
and blood vessels. The retina is an expansion of the optic 
nerve. The eye is divided into two distinct portions by the 
crystalline lens. The anterior portion is filled by a watery 
fluid known as the aqueous humor; the posterior portion by 
a transparent jelly-like substance known as the vitreous 
humor. Placed in front of the lens is the iris, a diaphragm 
which allows the light to reach the lens by a circular open- 
ing, the pupil. The crystalline lens and the two humors 
act together like a single converging lens, forming a real, 
inverted and diminished image of any object to which the 
eye is directed. When this image falls upon the re%ina the 
nerve filaments are set in vibration. The disturbance is 
carried to the brain by means of the optic nerve where it 
causes the sensation of sight. A near sighted eye is one 
in which objects cannot be seen unless they are held very 
close to the eye. The anterior-posterior diameter of the eye 
is too long and parallel rays of light are not focused on the 
retina but in front of it. A far sighted eye is one in 
which the anterior-posterior diameter is too short and 
parallel rays are focused behind the retina. Accommoda- 
tion — Certain muscles attached to the crystalline lens act so 
as to increase the curvature and the refracting power of the 
lens for near objects and diminish them for distant objects. 
This is called the power of accommodation. 

Compound Microscope.— When it is desired to mag- 
nify an object more than can be done conveniently by a 
single lens, two convex lenses are used. The essential parts 
of a compound microscope are the objective, the eye 
piece and the illuminating" apparatus. The eye piece 
and objective are placed at opposite ends of a tube and are 

IS 



PHYSICS. 

generally compound, that is, the objective consists of two 
or three achromatic lenses and the eye piece of two or more 
simple lenses. The objective is of short focal length and 
produces a real, inverted and magnified image of the object 
examined. The eye piece acts like a simple magnifying 
glass enabling the observer to see an enlarged virtual image 
of the image produced by the objective. The internal reflec- 
tion of light is prevented by blackening the walls of the 
tube. Spherical aberration is overcome by the use of proper 
diaphragms. The compound microscope varies in construc- 
tion and is often provided with special devices applicable to 
particular uses. 

The Telescope enables the observer to see distant 
objects more distinctly than with the naked eye. The 
telescope resembles the microscope in having an object glass 
which produces a real image of the object examined and an 
eye piece which produces a virtual image. The objective 
of the telescope is very large and has a great focal length 
producing a real image much smaller than the object. The 
Astronomical telescope consists essentially of two 
lenses. The objective produces a real, inverted diminished 
image of the distant object. This image is then viewed 
through the eye piece and appears magnified. Terrestlal 
telescopes, or spyglasses consist of an objective and an 
eye piece between which are interposed a system of two 
lenses. These lenses produce an erect image of the image 
produced by the objective. The image finally seen is erect. 

The Opera Glass— In this instrument the eye piece 
is a concave lens. The object glass tends to make a real 
image of the object beyond the eyepiece but before they 
meet they are made to diverge by the eyepiece enabling the 
observer to see an erect, magnified image. The magnifying 
power of an opera glass is small when compared to that of 

16 



PHYSICS. 

the telescope. Its construction is such that a short tube 
instead of a long tube is used. 

Stereoptican. — This instrument is used to produce on 
a screen mag-nified images of small transparent pictures on 
glass, called slides. The lime light is most commonly used, 
though for a certain class of views the electric light is pre- 
ferred. The flame of an oxyhydrogen blow pipe is directed 
against a piece of lime and raises it to a white heat. The 
rays of light from the white hot lime are condensed by 
means of a convex lens called the condensing lens in such 
a manner that they may pass through a lens known as the 
projecting lens. The projecting lens produces a real, 
inverted and magnified image on the screen. The project- 
ing lens is so arranged that it can slide back and^forth so 
as to properly focus the image. The glass slide is placed 
between the condensing lens and the projecting lens. By 
inverting the slide the image is seen right side up. 

The Sterescope is an instrument for producing from 
two nearly similar pictures of an object the effect of a single 
picture. Two pictures of an object are taken under slightly 
different angular view and it is the object of the sterescope 
to blend these two pictures. Each eye sees only one of the 
pictures but the images conveyed into the brain unite into 
one. A diaphragm placed between the two lenses prevents 
either eye from seeing both pictures at the same time. Rays 
of light are refracted by each half-lens in such a manner 
that they seem to come from a common point beyond the 
plane of the picture. The two slightly different pictures 
thus seem to be in the same place at the same time and are 
successfully blended. 

The Photographer's Camera consists essentially 
of a darkened box and an achromatic convex lens. A ground 
glass is usually placed at the back part of the darkened box 

17 



PHYSICS. 

and is so ajusted that a well-defined inverted image of the 
object placed in front of the lens is projected upon it. When 
the camera has been properly focused the ground glass is 
replaced by a sensitive plate. The chemical changes that 
the light produces are made visible by a process called 
"developing" and made permanent by a process called 
**fixing.'* 




18 



PHYSICS . 
OU TJLINJE QUIZZES. 

(FOURTH PAPKR.) 

1. Explain the two uses of the term sound. Define 
sound-waves; wave-length. 

2. Upon what does the velocity of sound depend? What 
effect have pitch and intensity upon the velocity of sound- 
waves? 

3. Upon what does the energ-y of a sound-wave depend? 
What is the law of the reflection of &ound? 

4. What is a resonator? 

5. IJxplain what is meant by interference of a sound- 
wave. 

6. What is the *'octave" of a sound? 

7. Give laws for vibrations of strings, 

8. Define discord; concord; chord. 

9. Describe the Phonograph. Give structure of the 
Vocal Organs. Of the Kar. 

10. Define Optics. What is light? How do bodies become 
visible? 

11. What is the differencie between luminous and non- 
luminous bodies? 

12. When is a body transparent? Opaque? What is a 
ray of light? 

13. Define shadow, umbra, penumbra. 

14. What is the velocity of light? Give laws of intensity 
of light. 

15. What is a mirror? How are multiple images formed? 

16. What is a concave mirror? A convex mirror? When 
is a focus real? Virtual? 

17. What is a spherical aberration? Chromatic aberra- 
tion? 

18. What is refraction? What are the classes of lenses? 

19. Describe the eye. The Compound microscope. The 
telescope. 

20. Describe the opera glass. The stereoscope. The 
photographer's camera. 

19 



.^ 



ijK 




GENERAL HISTORY. 

(FOURTH PAPER.) 

"The reading of a good book gives birth to new ideas." 

ROMS— INTERNA!, TROUBI^ES AND WARS — ( 133-29 B. C. ) 

The increased wealth of Rome was confined to the no- 
bles, in whose possession was the whole of Italy, with al 
most supreme power in the hands of the Senate. The 
number of slaves was enormous, the agrarian laws totally 
disregarded, and the plebeians oppressed by their noble 
creditors. 

Tiberius Gracchus, tribune, moved by the^distress 
of the people, proposed in the Senate the revival of the 
lyicinian I^aws, — that the public lands should be restored 
to the State, and the lands be divided among the people, 
and that the public treasures received from Attains, King 
of Pergamus, as tribute, should be used in helping the 
poorer class of farmers. 

As a result of his activity in this direction, Gracchus 
was slain by a mob. 

The blood of the tribune, Tiberius Gracchus, was the 
first shed since the period of the Kings, in civil strife in 
Rome, the forerunner of the floods which afterwards flowed. 

The attempt to put in force the agrarian laws caused 
other troubles. Oaius Gracchus, the brother of the slain 
tribune, now proposed that the" grain obtained as taxes 
from the provinces be donated to the poor. 

The dissensions which followed, caused the Senate to 
declare civil war in existence, in which Caius Gracchus 
and three thousand of his followers were executed, 121 B. C 

Jugurthine War.— Jugurtha, having bribed mem- 
bers of the Roman Senate and the generals sent against 

1 






GENERAL, HISTORY. 

him. after he had usurped the Numidian throne, gave way 
to such outrageous conduct that Rome was compelled to 
declare war against him. 

Metellus was sent against him. Jugurtha was de- 
feated and fled to Mauritania. 

The famous Caius Marius, who had been the lieuten- 
ant of Metellus, — an illiterate man of plebeian origin, 
whom the people had elected consul, — was now put in com- 
mand of the army sent against Jugurtha. In 106 B. C. 
Jugurtha was defeated, captured and brought to Rome, 
where he died. 

Meantime the Cimbri and Teutons, barbarian tribes 
of Germany, invaded Gaul, and threatened the safety of 
Italy. Marius, in command of the Roman army sent to 
oppose them, defeated the Teutons near the Rhone, 102 
B. C. Having been appointed consul for the fifth time, 
Marius marched, the next year, against the Cimbri, and 
defeated them with great slaughter in Cis-Alpine Gaul. 
These two successes gave Marius the title "Savior of his 
country." 

Social War.— About 90 B. C. a fearful contest, the 
Social War, was waged between Rome and the Italian 
States. These had demanded that they be invested with 
all the rights of citizenship. This demand being rejected 
by Rome, a war of about two years' duration followed. 
After the death of about three hundred thousand Italians, 
peace was established by Rome granting the franchise to 
all who would lay down their arms. 

Mithridatic War.— Many conquests in Asia Minor 
having given Mithridates, King of Pontus, great power, 
he assumed the role of "liberator of the Hellenic peoples'* 
from the rule of Rome. His first important step was to 
order the Italians in Asia Minor to be exterminated. In 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

obedience to his orders eighty thousand were killed in one 
night, 88 B. C. 

Sulla was sent to manage the war against Mithri- 
dates, and in four years, 84 B. C, compelled him to submit ; 
but ten years later, 74 B. C, Mithridates renewed the war. 
Defeated by the Roman general, lyucullus, Mithridates fled 
to Armenia, and obtained the protection and active assist- 
ance of his son-in-law, Tigranes. Ivucullus defeated the 
allies, but in 68 B. C, weakened by the revolt of his troops, 
he was- himself compelled by Mithridates to retreat. 

Pompey, afterwards styled the Great, being now 
placed in command of the Roman forces, defeated the army 
of Tigranes and Mithridates, the latter ending his life by 
suicide, 63 B. C. % 

First Civil War. — Ambition led Lucifer,— ''Star of 
the Morning," to his downfall in Heaven, and ambition of 
leaders now plunged Rome into civil war, and finally 
brought to destruction the mighty power of Western 
Europe. 

Marius had expected to be appointed to the manage- 
ment of the Mithridatic war, and the appointment, instead 
of himself, of Sulla, who had been his lieutenant in the 
war against Jugurtha, gave great offense to Marius. In 
the comitia of the tribes, he obtained the passage of a de- 
cree transferring the command from Sulla to himself; but 
the latter refusing to obey the decree, marched to Rome and 
entered the city, from which Marius had fled with his 
legions. This was the first time a Roman army had en- 
camped within its walls, — 88 B. C. 

After Sulla had set out to carry on the Mithridatic 
war, the aged Marius, aided by a military force in com- 
mand of Cinna, returned to Rome from the ruins of Car- 
thage, where he had taken refuge. Many distinguished 

3 



/ 






GENERAL HISTORY. 



citizens of Rome were put to death by him, for having 
espoused the cause of Sulla. In the following year he and 
Cinna were declared consuls without the formality of an 
election to that office, — but soon after, Marius, worn out by 
intemperate habits, died at the age of 71, — 86 B. C. 

The return of Sulla to Italy with a large army, which 
was opposed by a great force of the adherents of the de- 
ceased Marius, brought on a dreadful war among the citi- 
zens of Italy, which lasted two years. At the beginning, 
Sulla having conquered the armed Samnites who met him, 
then entered Rome. This event was followed by the "Pro- 
scription of Sulla," the massacre of six thousand Samnites 
whom he had taken prisoners, and of eight thousand citi- 
zens, — the supporters and friends of Marius. 

Then declaring himself "Perpetual Dictator," Sulla 
made many governmental reforms ; but after two years' 
reign he resigned the dictatorship and retired to private 
life,— an unheard-of action by one holding such exalted 
power. But the strife between the parties was not ended ; 
it was continued after the death of both Marius and SuUa 
by Sertorius, a distinguished leader of the Marians, who 
established himself in Spain, bidding defiance for ten 
years to the Roman Senate, until Pompey was sent against 
him, when the death of Sertorius by the hand of an assasin 
ended the contest, 72 B. C. 

The Servile War.— During this time Rome was con- 
fronted by another danger, — the insurrection of its slaves. 
Spartacus, a noble Thracian taken captive in war, 
had been confined in the camp, — or school — of gladiators 
at Capua. Escaping with a band of fellow-captives to Mt. 
Vesuvius, he was here joined by such a vast number of 
outlaws and slaves that he soon had a force of ten thou- 
sand men, with whiWhe^moved northward, and defeating 

4 



OENERAL HISTORY. 

the regular Roman army, threatened the safety of the city, 
until he was defeated by Crassus in battle, and slain, 71 
B. C. Seventy years before this a revolt of the slaves had 
occurred in Sicily. 

The success of Pompey in the civil and servile wars, 
gave him great influence in Rome, which was further in- 
creased by his clearing the Mediterranean sea of the pirates 
which infested it. Crassus also obtained great power, not 
only by his military success, but by the lavish expenditure 
of his great wealth, and the two became the leaders of 
Rome. 

lyUCuUus meantime was winning victories in Asia over 
Mithridates and his son-in-law, Tigranes; his ultimate 
success was, however, stopped by a mutiny of l|^s troops. 
Pompey being sent into Asia with absolute power, brought 
the war to an end in less than three years, and made Pontus 
a Roman province, 63 B. C. He then subjugated Syria, 
captured Jerusalem and made Palestine tributary to Rome. 

While Pompey was absent in Asia, a new danger 
threatened Rome,— the '^Conspiracy of Catiline." 
Many had been left by the civil war in a needy condition 
and reckless, — one of the usual results of war. These 
found a leader in I^ucius Catiline, a man of patrician rank, 
but of corrupt and vicious character. He, with many asso- 
ciates of like character, plotted to murder his fellow-sen- 
ators and to usurp the government. Betrayed to the Consul 
Cicero by the ambassadors of the Gauls whom he had at- 
tempted to corrupt, the consul denounced him in the Sen- 
ate. Catiline escaped from the city, but was overtaken 
and slain in Etruria. Many of his fellow-plotters remain- 
ing in the city were seized and executed. 

Although Pompey, on his return from Asia, had been 
graced with a "triumph" of two days, yet the Senate, in- 

5 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

fluenced by Cato, refused to ratify his acts. A popular 
party le4 by Julius Caesar, was rapidly gaining power 
in Rome. To this party the irritated Pompey now joined 
himself, and Caesar, his personal magnetism having effected 
a reconciliation between Pompey and Crassus, formed with 
these two influential leaders and himself 

THE I^IRST TRIUMVIRATE. 

To strengthen the tie between himself and Pompey, 
Caesar then gave his daughter, Julia, in marriage to Pom- 
pey, and by the aid of Pompey and Crassus, obtained for 
himself the consulship, and when this was ended, had con- 
ferred upon himself the proconsulship of Gaul, the theater 
of many of his distinguished actions. In his campaigns, — 
of eight years, — Caesar conquered the Gauls, crossed the 
Rhine and gained many victories over the Germans, then 
entered Britain and defeated the warlike inhabitants, 55 
B. C. Eight hundred cities and three hundred tribes were 
brought under subjection by him. 

In the meantime, Crassus, who had been made pro- 
consul of Syria, was slain in a battle with the Parthians, 
near the Caspian sea. Cassius, his lieutenant, succeeding 
to the command, checked the westward march of the Par- 
thians, by a war lasting two years longer. 

The triumvirate was dissolved upon the death of 
Crassus, while Caesar was still in Gaul. Pompey, proconsul 
of Spain, had remained in Rome. Becoming master of 
Rome, and influenced by the growing popularity of Caesar, 
he determined to become dictator. Joining the party of 
the Senate opposed to Caesar, he obtained the passage of a 
decree "that Caesar should at once disband his army," and 
if disobedient to this order, "should be proclaimed an out- 
law." 



GENEBAIi HISTORY. 

But Caesar, instead of disbanding his army, which was 
devoted to him, determining to oppose force with force, set 
out upon his return to Italy, crossed the Rubicon, and 
the Second, or "Great Civil War" of Rome began. 

Pompey, accompanied by many of the senators and 
citizens of Rome, fled to Brundusium (Brindisi), and col- 
lecting a large fleet, sailed for EJpirus. 

Caesar, having reduced his enemies in Italy, now pro- 
ceeded to Spain, compelled the generals of Pompey 's army 
to surrender, and incorporated their forces with his own. 
He then crossed to Epirus in pursuit of Pompey, whom he 
defeated in the battle of Pharsalus, (48 B. C.) Pompey, 
fleeing to EJgypt, promptly pursued by Caesar, ^||^.s treach- 
erously assassinated as he stepped ashore. Caesar, grieved 
at the death of his brave relative, ordered his burial with 
high honors, and then occupied Alexandria. 

Ptolemy, the young King of Egypt, and his sister, the 
famed Cleopatra, submitted to the arbitrament of Caesar 
their respective claims to the Kingdom. Caesar, fascinated 
by the charms of Cleopatra, decided in her favor. A war 
with Ptolemy followed, in which Alexandria was burned, 
and its public library of a hundred thousand valuable 
ancient books was destroyed. 

lyeaving Egypt, Caesar moved expeditiously against- 
Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates, who had seized Armenia 
and Colchis. Defeating Pharnaces in the battle of ^ela, 
Caesar informed the Senate of the fact by his famous dis- 
patch, *'"Veni, vidi, vici." (I came, I saw, I conquered. ) 
So rapidly did Caesar prosecute this war, that in two 
months Asia was conquered and Caesar returned to Rome, 
where the dictatorship was conferred upon him. 

Caesar next entered Africa the second time, where he 
gained a great victory over Cato in the battle of Thapsus. 

7 



.■a*!!:* 



GEKEBAIi HISTORY. 

When the news of his success reached him, Cato, foreseeing 
the end of the Republic, committed suicide at Utica, 46 B. C. 

Caesar, having made Numidia a Roman province, re- 
turned with his veterans to Rome, where he enjoyed four 
"triumphs,"— Gaul, Egypt, Pontus and Africa. A general 
amnesty followed. 

Caesar made many reforms in the Roman laws, includ- 
ing a reform of the calendar, favored colonization, rebuilt 
Carthage and Corinth, encouraged the peaceful arts, and 
King in all but the title, was promising a higher degree of 
prosperity and peace than Rome had enjoyed for many 
years, when he was assassinated by Brutus, — "his most 
trusted friend," Oassius, and other conspirators, as he was 
entering the Senate, March IS,— Ides of March,— 44 B. C. 

As a statesman, politician, writer, orator,— a man of 
great personal magnetism, possessed of an active intellect 
of more than usual power, — Caesar ranks among the great- 
est men in Roman History. He was virtually the founder 
of the Roman Empire, and is called the first of the * 'Twelve 
Caesars." 

The assassination accomplished, the conspirators fled 
to the capitol. They made an agreement with Mark 
Antony, a warm friend of Caesar, — that the laws of the 
dead hero should be enforced, and his body should be hon- 
ored with a public, ceremonial funeral. In an oration over 
the body, pierced by twenty-three wounds, Antony so 
wrought upon the people that they compelled the conspir- 
ators to flee from the city. Antony, whose influence with 
the people now made him master of Rome, excited the citi- 
zens to a still higher degree until, denounced by Cicero, he 
was declared a public enemy by the Senate and forced to 
flee to save his life. 

8 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

After the death of Caesar, Caius Octavius, his grand- 
nephew and adopted son and heir, demanded the property- 
left to him by the g-reat Julius. Somewhat similar to his 
illustrious patron in character and manner, he soon won 
the affections of the people, gained the good will of the 
Senate and made a friend of Cicero. 

In the meantime, Antony and his forces suffered defeat 
in Cis- Alpine Gaul by the army of .the consuls. Octavius 
now took command of the army, — the consuls having been 
slain, — and formed a union with Lepidus. — a lieutenant 
of Caesar, — in Trans-Alpine Gaul. The Senate, having 
deposed Octavius from the command of the army, and hav- 
ing refused to confer upon him the consulship, he marched 
to the city and forced the Senate to accede to his demands. 

THK SECONt) TRIUMVIRATE, 

An alliance between Octavius, Antony, and I^epidus 
was now. formed, which continued in force for about five 
years. Certain provinces were assigned to each, and the 
power of appointing magistrates. Vengeance upon ene- 
mies in Italy was permitted to each of the triumvirs. In 
the proscription which followed three hundred Senators, — 
Cicero among them, — and two thonsand Knights were 
sufferers. 

Brutus and Cassius, who had become the masters of 
the eastern part of the Roman limpire and were supported 
by the party of the Republic, now became the objects of 
the hostility of the triumvirs. Octavius and Antony enter- 
ing Macedonia, defeated the army of the two conspirators 
at Philippi (42 B. C.) Brutus and Cassius both committing 
suicide to escape the vengeance of the triumvirs, 

Cleopatra, having visited Antony, was upon her return 
to Egypt accompanied by him. Yielding himself a willing 
captive to her wiles, Antony neglected his military duties, 



^ 



GEiyEBAL, HISTORY. 

and in a short time divorced Octavia, his wife, — the sister 
of Octavius, — in order to marry Cleopatra. 

By direction of Octavius the Senate decreed war 
against Bgrypt. This was ended by the total defeat of the 
forces of Antony and Cleopatra, at Actiuni (31 B. C. ) 
Both Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide to avoid 
gracing the triumph of Octavius. The death of Cleopatra 
ended the Ptolemaic dynasty, which had existed from 323 
to 31 B. C, nearly three hundred years. 

Having made Ugypt a Roman province, and stripping 
it of its great treasures, Octavius returned to Rome, and 
was invested with absolute authority under the title of 
Augustus, by the Senate, 27 B. C. — the proper beginning 
of the Roman Empire. The gates of the temple of Janus 
— for the third time in the history of Rome — were closed by 
Augustus in celebration of universal peace throughout the 
domains of Rome. 

THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 

This really began after the battle of Actium, 31 B. C, 
when absolute power was given by the Senate to Octavius 
Augustus, Imperator. Augustus, though holding all the 
most important offices, was still careful to retain repub- 
lican forms, and avoided giving offense to the people by 
rejecting such titles as Dictator, King. As Imperator 
he was commander-in-chief of the armies ; as President of 
the Senate, and Consul, he was the head of the civil gov- 
ernment. At his option he obeyed or disobeyed the de- 
crees of the Senate. His rule was marked by justice and 
moderation. For his personal protection he organized the 
Praetorian Guard— which was made up of ten thousand 
men. By his campaigns in the northern part of Spain he 
annexed a number of Alpine provinces ; attempting to 
conquer the Germans east of the Rhine, who had revolted, 

10 



GENERAL HISTORY, 

he was defeated by Herman (Arminius), his army, led by 
Varus, being- cut to pieces by the tribes. Upon his death 
(A. D. 14) he was succeeded by hia stepson, Tiberius. 
Augustus was a patron of literature. Virgil, Horace and 
Ovid lived at his time. 

During the reign of Augustus,, occurred an event 
memorable in Christian history, — the birth of the Christ. 

"The Twelve Caesars" include Julius,— the illustrious 
founder, and Augustus,— the first Imperator, — of the line 
and ten successors: Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, 
Nero, Gralba, Otho, Vitellius. Vespasian, Titus, 
Domitiau. The most of these are noteworthy only as 
blood-thirsty, vicious tyrants. 

During the reign of Claudius the southern part of 
Britain was conquered and colonies established there. Two 
acqueducts were constructed, the one known as the 
Claudian Acqueduct, brought water to the city from a dis- 
tance of forty-five miles. 

The reign of Nero was rendered especially infamous 
by the burning of Rome (A. D. 64) and the persecution 
of the Christians who were accused of having set fire to 
the city. **Nero fiddled while Rome burned." 

The reign of Vespasian was notable for the capture 
and destruction A. D. 70 of Jerusalem, by his son Titus, 
after a siege of six months, during which, according to 
Josephus, more than one million of the citizens perished. 
The arch of Titus celebrates this victory. The general, 
Agricola, made further conquests in Britain in this reign. 

During the reign of Titus, successor of Vespasian, 
occurred the destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum, 
by an eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, A. D. 79. This calamity 
was followed by a pestilence in Rome, overcrowded by 
refugees from the destroyed cities, in which it is said ten 

11 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

thousand died daily. A conflagration lasting- for several 
days, destroyed a large part of the city, the suffering of 
the citizens being alleviated by the liberal donations of 
Titus, who further assisted very many of the poor by com- 
pleting the Colosseum which had been begun by his father. 

The reign of Domitian, the unworthy brother and 
successor of Titus, is noted chiefly for the great power 
obtained by the Praetorian Guard, who made Rome a mil- 
itary despotism ; and were in reality its sovereigns. 

After the death of Domitian, Rome was under the rule 
of the "Five Good Emperors," — Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, 
Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius, (A. D. 96-180.) 

Trajan, the first of note among these, was distin- 
guished not only as a great general because of conquests 
over the Parthians in the east and the German tribes to 
the north, but far more as a virtuous man and ruler. He 
built the famous Trajan column. 

Hadrian, on ascending the throne, devoted fourteen 
years to visiting and inspecting the mode of government 
in all parts of his vast empire, thus familiarizing himself 
with their special requirements and adopting such meas- 
ures for bettering their condition as his own knowledge 
dictated. To protect North Britain from the band of sav- 
ages from Caledonia, he built a rampart from Solway Frith 
to the North Sea, across the island. 

During the reign of his second successor, Marcus 
Aurelius, immense bodies of these barbarians made fre- 
quent inroads across the border into the sections of Britain 
lying south of Hadrian's wall, a predatory custom which 
continued to mark the habits of the Highlanders of Scot- 
land down to the Nineteenth century. The death of 
Aurelius marks the beginning of the decline of the Roman 
Empire in the West, A. D. 180. 

12 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

Within the next hundred years, the power of the army 
increased to such an extent that the soldiers not only dic- 
tated who should reign, but even sold the throne of Rome 
to the highest bidder at public auction. 

In this way Didius Julianus, A. D. 193, a wealthy 
Roman, ascended the throne, reigning two years. The 
Roman armies of Britain and Asia refused to accede to 
this action of the Praetorians, and made their own generals 
Imperator. 

Septimius Severus, one of those chosen by the for- 
eign legions, marched to Rome, and won over to his sup- 
port the Senate. A man of great energy, he ruled as a 
military despot, subjugated Babylon and Parthia, and in 
Britain drove the Caledonians, or Scots, to the north of 
the wall between the Clyde and Forth rivers. His death 
occurred A. D. 211. 

Oaracalla, his son, was a tyrannical ruler. The abo- 
lition of the distinction heretofore existing between Ital- 
ians and Provincials in citizenship marks his reign. By 
this the rights of Roman Citizens were bestowed upon all 
freemen of the Umpire. 

Alexander Severus was the third successor of Cara- 
calla. A young man of virtuous, gentle, benevolent char- 
acter, devoted to learning, — the condition of the Empire 
under his rule showed a marked contrast with preceding 
ones. In A. D. 235, he was murdered by his own guards. 
In this reign, Ardeshir overthrew the Parthian Umpire, 
and founded the Sassanides, a remarkable dynasty, which 
ruled Persia for about four centuries. 

The lapse of twenty-five turbulent years brings us to 
the reign of Gallienus, one of the "thirty tyrants." An 
uprising in Persia during his reign, was quieted by the aid 
of Odenathus, — Prince of Palmyra, — an independent city, 

13 




GEyEBAL HISTORY. 

and his queen, the famous Zenobia. In reward for their 
services in Persia, Gallienus bestowed upon them the gov- 
ernment of the Kast. Odenathus, having- been murdered, 
Zenobia, his queen, succeeded him as sole monarch. 

Zenobia, the pupil of the celebrated scholar and 
philosopher, — lyonginus, — was the most highly educated 
and accomplished woman of her period. After ruling Pal- 
myra, for five years, as a tributary of Rome, 2^enobia 
claimed an independent sovereignty. Aurelian, the Ro- 
man Emperor, offended by her act, waged war against Pal- 
myra and captured it, A. D. 273, i^enobia being taken pris- 
oner. Subsequently the inhabitants of the city rose in 
revolt ; Rome left nothing but ruins to mark its site. 

In a period of sixty-six years, ten emperors were suc- 
cessfully placed upon the throne,— and murdered by the 
soldiers, in their struggle to hold control of the destinies 
of the Eimpire, until a change was made in the form of 
government, when Diocletian, one of the most remarka- 
ble Imperators, assumed the authority, A. D. 284. After 
ruling alone for one year, he divided the government with 
a colleague chosen by himself. A few years later, each 
emperor or "Augustus" associated with himself an as- 
sistant having the title of "Caesar." In this manner the 
affairs of the entire empire were directed by four rulers,— 
two "Augusti" and two "Caesars." 

During the reign of the two emperors, Mesopotamia 
and Persia were subdued. In A. D. 305, Diocletian resigned 
his office and forced his colleague, Maximian, to do the 
same. Thus Galerius-* 'Caesar" of the Bast, and Constan- 
tius-* 'Caesar" of the West, became emperors. 

Constantius, dying at York, Britain, A. D. 306, his son 
Constantine was selected by the army as emperor, without 
awaiting the consent of Galerius, who, supported by his 

14 



OEyEBAL HISTORY. 

two *'Ca2sars,'* refused to ratify the choice of the army in 
Britain. This refusal gave rise to a war between Constan- 
tine and six competitors for the throne of the West, contin- 
uing for eighteen years, when Constantine prevailed over 
all. 

While marching to meet Maxentius, a competitor, Con- 
stantine claimed to have seen a luminous cross in the heav- 
ens, bearing the Greek inscription, "en touto nika"; I^atin- 
ized, "in hoc signo vince," (by this conquer"). Having, 
under the standard of a cross, defeated his rival, he became 
a convert to Christianity. To be near the center of his do- 
minions, and because of the advantages offered as a defen- 
sive point, he moved his capital from Rome to the site of 
the ancient city of Byzantium, The name was afte|^ward 
changed to Constantinople — "the city of Constantine." 
He also secured the peace of the West by disbanding the 
Praetorian Guards. 

The conversion and vision of Constantine led to the 
adopting, A. D. 323, the celebrated "standard of the cross" 
— the I^abarum, which was afterward carried in battle by 
the Christian emperors. It consisted of a long spear crossed 
by a beam suspending a silken banner, on which were 
wrought images of the monarch and his children. The pike 
was surmounted by a crown of gold surrounding a mono- 
gram, representing both the form of a cross and the initial 
letters of the name of Christ. It was constantly guarded 
by fifty selected soldiers, and when displayed at the head 
of the Roman host, it both inspired the soldiers and terri- 
fied the ranks of the enemy on account of the fearful 
slaughter which always marked its advance against them. 

The conversion of Constantine imparted great strength 
to the Christian Church. The founder of Christianity, 
crucified at Jerusalem during the reign of Tiberius, had 

IS 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

sought to destroy polytheism and to restore worship of the 
**one God," to abolish the superstitous beliefs and cere- 
monies of paganism, and to teach truth in its highest spir- 
itual form. After his death, and in the face of cruel perse- 
cutions, his religion spead with great rapidity. 

It has been said before that Rome tolerated all religions, 
provided no subversion of her own system was attempted. 
But Christianity was, of necessity, hostile to her religious, 
civil and political systems; hence Roman magistrates could 
scarcely avoid condemning those who were charged with 
non-conformity to the prescribed laws of the State, one of 
which was the offering of sacrifice to the gods of Rome. 
From this cause arose the long-continued persecutions of 
the Christians. 

In A. D. 313, by the famous Edict of Milan, the 
struggle of the Church with paganism was ended. Con- 
stantine did not forbid pagan practices until his death was 
near at hand, but he granted entire toleration to Christian- 
ity, disjoined the State and pagan ritualism, repaired the 
Christian temples, and in every way encouraged Christian- 
ity. Sunday, the first day of the week, was proclaimed by 
him a day of rest. And finally, about twelve years before 
his death, the famous Council of Nice met and defined 
more clearly the Christian doctrines, A. D. 325. 

Julian, — the Apostate, — succeeded Coustantine. He 
attempted to overthrow Christianity and to re-introduce the 
pagan system, but his successor, Jovian, re-established 
Christianity as the religion of the State, about A. D. 363. 

BARBARIAN INVASIONS AND OVERTHROW OF VS7ESTERN 

EMPIRE. 

The remaining history of Rome must be briefly sum- 
marized. For more than three hundred years vast numbers 
of barbarian tribes from Germany poured into the western 

16 



GENERAL. HISTORY. 

portions of the Empire. These, repelled by Aurelius, were 
followed, during- the reign of Decius, by the Goths, who 
defeated the Roman army opposing them, Decius being 
among the slain, A. D. 251. 

Aurelian, the successor of Claudius, who had become 
Emperior by the death of Decius, and who had routed one 
of the greatest Gothic armies by which Roman territory 
was ever invaded, permitted the Goths and Vandals, about 
A. D. 270, to settle upon the south side of the Danube. 
The Alemanni — a German tribe — were the next invaders of 
Italy. These were defeated by Aurelian. 

About the middle of the fourth century, the Goths, who 
had become converts to the Christian faith, become known 
as the Visigoths (Western Goths) and Ostrogoths 
(Eastern Goths), the latter dwelling near the Black Sea. 

The Huns, an Asiatic tribe, were the next to invade 
Europe, attacking the Goths, who sought protection from 
the Romans. Soon after a dispute in regard to the territory 
south of the Danube, between the Romans and Goths, gave 
rise to a war between them. In the battle of Adrianople, 
A. D. 378, Valens, the Emperior, was slain. 

Theodosius, the Great, succeeding Valens, defeated 
the Goths, incorporating great numbers of them in the 
Roman army. The reign of this Emperor was marked by 
the last events which conferred honor upon the Roman 
name — the re-establishment of Christianity in every por- 
tion of Roman domain, the full overthrow of Paganism, 
and the complete repulse of the barbarians from Roman 
frontiers. Dying, A. D. 395, Theodosius divided his Em- 
pire between his two sons, giving to Honorius the Western 
Empire, and to Arcadius, the Eastern. 

Alaric, the Goth, invaded Greece (Eastern Empire), 
prxt was induced by Stilicho, the Vandal general of 

X7 



^■^■^^ 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

Arcadlus to make a treaty with this Kmperor. He then in- 
vaded Italy, marching to attack Rome, but was defeated at 
Verona, A. D. 403. 

About A. D. 408, the Goths in the Roman Army revolted 
and joined Alaric, who at once invaded Italy the second 
time, captured and plundered Rome, A. D. 410, enraged be- 
cause Honorius, who had fled to Ravenna, refused to again 
purchase peace. After pillaging the city for six days and 
slaughtering the inhabitants, he withdrew, sparing only 
the churches. His death soon followed. 

Adolphus, his successor, induced by Placidia, the sister 
of Honorius, whom he had recently married, made peace 
with the Romans, and retired with his army to Spain, 
where he founded the Kingdom of Visgoths, the Van- 
dals, at the same time settling in central and southern 
Spain. In A. D. 427, the Visgoths forced the Vandals to 
leave Spain, and to cross over into Africa, -where they es- 
tablished their power in the northern part. The Gothic 
sway was also extended over a large part of Gaul. In 4SS 
the Vandals sailed up the Tiber and sacked Rome. 

Honorius dying, A. D. 423, altera weak and disgraceful 
reign of twenty-eight years, was succeeded by Valentinian 
III, the son of Placidia. During his reign, the Huns, led 
by the terrible Attila, laid waste the Eastern Empire. 
Then, allied with the Franks, who, with the Burgundians, 
had previously invaded the northern part of Gaul, Attila 
also invaded Gaul, but was met by the Romans and Goths 
and defeated. The Romans were led by Aetius, the most 
skilled general of his time, who is styled the "last of the 
Romans," A. D. 451. Yet, the next year, Attila invaded 
Italy, capturing and destroying many cities. It was to 
save themselves from destruction by the fierce hordes of 
Attila that the Veneti founded Venice on a group of islands, 

\8 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

The " Western Empire" of Rome, was ended A. D. 
476, by Odoacer, a chief of the Heruli, who abolished the 
the office and title of Emperor, and proclaimed himself 
Patrician, ruling- as Viceroy of the Eastern Empire. 

Rome, the proud ruler of the world, fell through the re- 
peated blows of the barbarians from without and the cor- 
ruption which existed in the state. The wealth which 
poured into Rome from the Provinces, the great number of 
slaves, the knowledge of Eastern customs, the brutal exhi- 
bitions in the Amphitheaters, led to idleness and cor- 
ruption in all classes of society. 

Although the learning and culture of the Romans was 
acquired from Greece and the Eastern Nations, and they 
added little to it that was original, yet they furthered the 
civilization of the world as no other nation has, by forcing 
this culture upon the barbarous Teutonic and Celtic 
tribes. And Christianity, also with its civilizing power, 
given to the Romans by a subdued race, was carried by 
them wherever the Roman arms led. 




19 




GENERAL, HISTORY. 



OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

(FOURTH PAPER.) 

1. What can you say of the Gracchi? 

2. What caused the Jug-urthine war? 

3. How did Marius gain the title, — "Savior of his 
Country?" 

4. What two prominent leaders in the first civil war? 

5. Who declared himself "Perpetual Dictator?" 

6. What can you say of Spartacus? 

7. What was the "Conspiracy of Catiline?" 

8. How was it ended? 

9. Who constituted the "First Triumvirate?" 

10. What caused its dissolution? 

11. Why did Caesar "cross the Rubicon," and what was 
the result? 

12. What was the fate of Pompey? 

13. Relate the history of Cleopatra. 

14. What was the character of Caesar? 

15. Who were the members of the Second Triumvirate? 

16. Who was the first Emperor? 

17. What memorable event occurred during the reign 
of Vespasian? 

18. Who introduced Christianity into the Roman Em- 
pire? Date? 

19. What led to the downfall of the Western Empire? 



20 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 

(ifOURTH PAPi^R. ) 

"Were it in my power, I would scatter books over all 
the earth as men sow wheat on the plowed fields." — Hor- 
ace Mann. 

Clause 4. No capitation or other direct fax shall be laid, 
unless in proportion to the census or enumeration herein- 
before directed to be taken. 

By a capitation tax is meant, a certain amount per 
head, that is, a poll tax. Such a tax has never been levied 
by the national government. The original purpose of 
this clause seems to have been the exemption from taxa- 
tion of those slaves not included in the "three-fifths of all 
other persons." ( See Art. I, Sec. 2, Clause 3. ) 

That is, the other two-fifths of the slaves would not 
have been counted in levying a general capitation tax. 
The only force which this clause has now is that in case a 
capitation tax is levied by the general government it must 
be in accordance with the census. 

Clause 5, No tax or duty shall be laid on articles ex- 
ported from any State, 

This clause is interpreted to forbid the levying of a 
duty on any article exported from any part of the United 
States. It is right that no hindrance be placed in the way 
of marketing the surplus products of the country. 

Clause 6, No preference shall be given by any regu- 
lation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State 
over those of another; nor shall vessels bound to, or from^ 
one State y be obliged to enter ^ clear ^ or pay duties in another. 
There shall be no discrimination, on the part of the 
jfeneral government, in favor of any State. All shall be 



CIVIL, GOVERNMENT 

treated alike. And all commercial regulations and all 

import duties shall be uniformly applied. 

By entering- a port, is meant the entering- and landing 

with official permissions. By clearing a port is meant the 

departure with official permission. 

Great Britain required all ships sailing from American 

colonies to Kurope to first enter and clear an E^nglish port. 

Now a vessel may go directly to any port, home or foreign. 

Clause 7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury 

but in consequence of appropriations made by law; and a 

regular statement and account of the receipts and expendi- 
tures of all public money shall be published Jrom time to time. 
In this clause the representatives of the people are 
properly given control of the public funds. Kvery year 
congress votes appropriations to pay both the ordinary and 
the unusual expenses of the government. The bills pro- 
viding for the expenditure of money state specifically the 
purposes for which the money is to be used. The Secretary 
of the Treasury makes a report showing the receipts and 
expenditures during the fiscal year, which ends June 30th. 
Clause 8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the 
United States: And no person holding any office of profit or 
trust under them^ shall, without the consent of the Congress, 
accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind 
whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. 

This country is not afflicted with the snobbishness of 
artificial and meaningless titles. Here all men are equal. 
From the standpoint of our government there are no classes 
of citizens. The danger recognized by this clause is doubt- 
less a real one. It is possible that the vanity of an official 
might lead him to desire a foreign title, or that his greed 
might make him willing to accept other emoluments or 
presents from a foreign country. Thus plans of a hostile 



CIVIL. GOVERNMENT 

nation mig-ht be furthered throug-h this kind of bribery; 
but the Constitution specifically and emphatically forbids 
the acceptance of such favors. The eleventh Congress pro- 
posed an amendment prohibiting- any citizen of the United 
States, whether an official or not, from accepting- favors 
such as are mentioned in this clause. This amendment 
was not ratified by three-fourths of the states and so failed 
of adoption. 

Section X. Clause i. No State shall enter into any 
treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque 
and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make any 
thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; 
pass any bill of attai?ider, ex-post-facto law, or law impair- 
ing the obligation of contracts, or grant afiy title of nobility. 

To make treaties, to grant letters of marque and 
reprisal, to coin money, these have been mentioned as pow- 
ers belonging to the general government. These powers 
cannot be divided with the States. 

"To constitute a bill of credit, withm the constitution, 
it must be issued by a State, involve the faith of the State, 
and be designed to circulate as money on the credit of the 
State, in the ordinary uses of business." (Peters.) The 
paper money of the U. S. is made up of bills of credit. 

A State may issue bonds in borrowing money without 
violating this clause. 

A bill of attainder or an ex-post-facto law would 
be just as objectionable for a state as for the nation and 
so are forbidden to both. 

No state may pass a law impairing the obligation of 
contracts. 

"The spirit of the provision is this: A contract which 
is legally binding upon the parties at the time and place 




CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

it is entered into by them shall remain so, any law of the 
State to the contrary notwithstanding." (Tiffany.) 

Clause 2, No State shall, without the consent of Con- 
gress, lay any impost or duties on imports or exports, except 
what may he absolutely necessary for executing its inspection 
laws; and the net produce of all duties and impost, laid by 
any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the 
treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be sub- 
ject to the revision and control of the Congress, 

The power to tax imported articles belongs to the Con- 
gress, lixports are not taxed at all. But States fre- 
quently employ officials to inspect goods as to purity, 
weight, etc., and these officials must be paid from fees col- 
lected from the owners of the goods inspected. Any sur- 
plus from this source must go to the general government. 

Clause 3, No State shall, without the consent of Con- 
gress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships-ofwar, 
in time of peace, enter into any agreem-ent or compact with 
another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, 
unless actually invaded, or in such imjninent danger as will 
not admit of delay. 

A duty of tonnage is a duty on a ship in proportion to 
its carrying capacity. 

A State is forbidden to keep a standing army but may 
have the organized state militia, because they are not con- 
sidered to be troops in the sense of this clause. 

The whole matter of making treaties and of declaring 
and carrying on war is a part of the nation's business and 
so cannot be the business of any portion of the nation 
acting independently. 

But States, especially those on the border, might be 
invaded so suddenly as to require immediate action in self- 
pefense. In such a case, if the U. S. troops were not at 



CIYFL GOVERNMENT 

hand when needed, the State would have the right to use 
the militia in repelling- the hostile onslaught. 

THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 

Article II, Section I. Clause i^ The e pee cutive power 
shall be vested in a President of the United States of Amer- 
ica. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, 
and^ together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same 
term, be elected as follows: 

By placing the executive power in the hands of one 
man, quickness and directness of action were made possi- 
ble, the responsibility was centralized, and the disputa- 
tions and jealousies, which would have been the sure re- 
sult of vesting the power in several persons, were tvoided. 

The framers of the constitution were not agreed as to 
the term of the president. The opinions varied from one 
to ten years and some thought that he should be elected for 
life. The first plan that met the approval of the majority 
was that the President should serve seven years and be in- 
eligible for reelection. This decision was not adhered to 
and the four year term was adopted with no limitation on 
the number of terms. Custom, however, has made two 
terms the limit, no president having served more than 
eight years. 

Many people believe that a long term with no reelection 
would be a better plan. The President would be more 
likely to give himself up wholly to serving the nation, if 
the allurement of a second term were withdrawn. In six 
or seven years he would have time to develop a policy. He 
could defy party influences with no fear that his presi- 
dential career might be cut short therefor. The popular 
excitement and great expense, incident to the election of 
president, would be less frequent. 



CIVIL GOVEflNMENT 

Clause 2. Each State shall appohit^ in such manner as 
the Legislature thereof may direct^ a num,her of electors, 
equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to 
which the State may be entitled in the Congress; but no sen- 
ator or represenative^ or person holding an office of trust or 
profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 

Instead of voting for the President directly, we vote for 
electors who vote for the President. All the States now 
choose their electors in the same way, that is, by voting 
for them on a general ticket. Eiach party nominates as 
many electors as the State has senators and representatives 
in congress, and a voter of that party votes for all the 
electors on the ticket of his party. 

The purpose of this "electoral college," as it is called, 
was to avoid the hasty and unwise action that might attend 
popular excitement, by giving these representatives of the 
people, these electors, entire charge of the election of the 
chief executive. This purpose has not been realized. The 
popular excitement could hardly be greater if the people 
voted directly for president ; and since the electors do not 
use their judgment but simply vote according to the will 
of their party they do not fulfill the original purpose of 
the electoral college, but are just a part of the machinery 
by which the voice of the people makes itself heard. Some 
think that this machinery is unnecessary and that we could 
vote directly for President as easily as for Governor. 

The next clause of the constitution was amended in 
1804, and as this amendment takes the place of the original 
clause, we print it here in full. 

THE TWEI.FTH AMENDMENT. 

Article XII, The electors shall meet in their respective 
States, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, 
one of whom, at leasts shall not be an inhabitant of the same 



i 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

State with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the 
person voted for as Presidefit, and in distinct ballots the per- 
son voted for as Vice-President; and they shall make distinct 
lists of all persons voted for as President^ and of all persons 
as Vice- Pre sidenty and of the number of votes for each, which 
lists they shall sign and certify^ and transmit sealed to the 
seat of the government of the United States, directed to the 
president of the Senate; — the president of the Senate shall, in 
the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, 

open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted; 

the person having the greatest number of votes for President 
shall 5e the President, if such number be a m^ajority of the 
whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have such 
majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers 
not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President 
the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by 
ballot, the President. But in choosing the President the votes 
shall be taken by States, the representation from each State 
having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of 
a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a 
majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And 
if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President 
whenever the right of choice shall devolve vpon them,, before 
the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-Presi- 
dent shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other 
constitutional disability of the President. The person having 
the greatest number of votes as Vice-President,shall be the Vice- 
President, if such number be a matority of the whole number 
of electors appointed; and if no person have a majority, then 
from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall 
choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall 
consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and a 
majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of Presi- 
dent shall he eligible to that oj Vice-President of the United 
States. 

The difference between this amendment and the orig-- 
inal clause may be seen by comparing- the following^ quota- 
tion from the original clause with corresponding- parts of 
the amendment. 

"The electors shall meet in their respective States and 
vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall 
not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves." 
"If no person has a majority, then from the five highest 
on the list the said House shall in like manner choose the 
President." "In every case after the choice of President, 
the person having the greatest number of votes of the 
electors shall be the Vice-President." 

By the original clause the person having a majority of 
the votes cast became President and the one having the 
next highest number of votes for President became Vice- 
President. Thus the President and Vice-President might 
belong to different parties. Now these two oflBces are 
voted for separately. 

If no one has a majority for President, the House of 
Representatives chooses from the three highest ; by the 
original clause the choice was made from the five highest. 

OUTlvINE OF TWEI.T'TH AMENDMENT. 

1. Electors meet (at the State capital. ) 

2. Vote for President and for Vice-President. 

3. Send certified lists of candidates and their re- 
spective votes to president of the Senate. 

4. President of the Senate has the votes counted in 
m presence of the Senate and House of Representatives. 

5. If there is no majority the House of Representa- 
tives selects a President from the highest three. 

8 




CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

6. In this the vote is by States, each State having one 
vote. 

7. Majority vote required. 

8. Representatives from two-thirds of the States re- 
quired for quorum. 

9. If the House fails to elect by March 4th the Vice- 
President becomes President. 

10. If no majority for Vice-President, Senate chooses 
from highest two. 

11. Two-thirds constitute a quorum ; a majority of the 
whole number is necessary to elect. 

12. Same qualifications for Vice-President as for 
President. 

The electors really make three sets of lists. Une they 
send to Washington by mail, another by special messen- 
ger, and the third they place in the care of the judge of 
the U. S. judicial district in which the electors meet. This 
is done to guard against the complete loss of these impor- 
tant records. 

Clause J. The Congress may determine the time of 
choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give 
their votes; which day shall be the same throughout the 
United States, 

The time of choosing, that is, of voting for electors, is 
the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The 
day on which the electors "give their votes" is the second 
Monday in January. If any votes are missing the presi- 
dent of the Senate sends for them on the fourth Monday in 
January and the counting is begun on the second Wednes- 
day in February. 

Clause 4. — No person except a natural-born citizen, or a 
citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this 
Constitution^ shall be eligible to the office of President ; 

9 






CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not 
have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been four- 
teen years resident within the United States. 

The wisdom of this clause is apparent. Truly we want 
our President to be an American by blood and not by adop- 
tion. Surely we want a man who is mature in judgment 
and experience and yet who is in his prime. And we want 
an American who has spent his mature years on Amer- 
ican soil. "Will residence during any fourteen years 
satisfy the requirement?" Commentators generally have 
expressed an affirmative opinion, based upon the fact that 
James Buchanan and others were elected President on their 
return from diplomatic service abroad. It must be remem- 
bered, however, that a person sent abroad to represent 
this government does not lose his residence in this 
country. Therefore the fact that Mr. Buchanan, being 
elected after acting as our Minister to England, has no 
bearing upon the question. On the other hand the evident 
purpose of the provision could hardly be satisfied if a boy, 
a native of this country, should live here until fourteen 
years of age and then spend the rest of his years in a for- 
eign country. And when the matter is carefully consid- 
ered, it will be seen that the only fourteen years which 
will secure that state of mind in the candidate which is 
sought by the provision are the fourteen years immedi- 
ately preceding election. Again twenty-one and four- 
teen equal thirty-five. A person "comes of age" at twenty- 
one. The fourteen years of manhood added would just 
make thirty-five years, the minimum age required. This 
coincidence could hardly have been accidental, and justifies 
the view expressed. (McCleary.) 

Clause 5. In case of the removal of the President from 
office, or of his death, resigiiation, or inability to discharge 

10 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

the powers and duties of the said office ^ the same shall devolve 
on the Vice-President^ and the Congress may by law provide 
for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both 
of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer 
shall then act as President ; and such officer shall act accord- 
ingly until the disability be removed, or a President shall be 
elected. 

Congress passed an act in 1792, providing- that the 
President Pro-tempore of the Senate should come first, and 
the Speaker of the House second in the order of succession, 
after the Vice-President. This order proved faulty ; for, 
twice conditions were such that there was no one to suc- 
ceed the President in case of death ; when Chester A. 
Arthur became President, and again when Vice-President 
Hendricks died, there was no one to succeed the President 
in case of disability. 

Congress remedied this difficulty in 1886 by establish- 
ing a new order of succession after the Vice-President as 
follows: Secretary of State, Secretary of the Treasury, 
Secretary of War, Attorney General, Postmaster General, 
Secretary of the Navy and Secretary of the Interior. Of 
course in order to be eligible, they must have the presi- 
dential qualifications. Henceforth there will be no lack of 
successors. 

Clause 6. The President shall, at stated times, receive 
for his services a compensation which shall neither be in- 
creased nor diminished during the period for which he shall 
have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period 
any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. 

Until 1873 the President's salary was $25,000 per year. 
In that year it was changed to $50,000, the amount he now 
receives. The salary of the Vice President is $8,000 per year. 

11 



CIVIIi GOVERNMENT 

The President also has the use of the furnished resi- 
dence, called the White House. The presidential oflBLce does 
not pay, from a financial standpoint, notwithstanding- the 
seeming high salary, because the personal expenses of the 
President are necessarily very great. Yet the salary is 
high enough that a man does not have to be rich in order 
to accept the office. 

As far as his salary is concerned, the President is not 
subject to Congress or to any outside influence whatsoever. 
His acts cannot affect his emoluments, that is, his pay. 

Clause 7. Before he enter on the execution of his office^ 
he shall take the following oath or affirmation: — *'^I do sol- 
emnly swear ( or affirm ) that I will faithfully execute the 
office of President of the United States ^ and will, to the best 
of my ability y preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution 
of the United States,'''' 

The oath of office is taken on March 4th in the pres- 
ence of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the 
United States. The President swears that he will perform 
his work faithfully, and that he will stand by the provis" 
ions of the constitution. 

Section II. Clause i. The President shall be com- 
m^ander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, 
and of the militia of the several States, when called into the 
actual service of the United States ; he may require the opin-- 
ion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the execu- 
tive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of 
their respective offices ; and he shall have power to grant re- 
prieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, 
except in cases of impeachment. 

The movements of the army and navy are under the 
direction of the President, though he does not command in 
person. The existence and subsistence of the army and 

12 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

navy depend upon acts of Congress. It follows, then, that 
however much the President may be inclined to a dic- 
tatorial policy, he cannot use the military to further his 
designs. He cannot substitute army rule for legislative 
rule. 

The heads of the several departments comprise the 
President's cabinet. These officials are the confidential 
advisors of the President, and are responsible to him for 
the management of their respective departments. 

The names of the cabinet officers serving at the present 
time are as follows: Secretary of State, John Hay, (O,) ; 
Secretary of the Treasury, lycslie M. Shaw, (Iowa) ; Secre- 
tary of War, Klihu Root, (N. Y.) ; Attorney General, Phi- 
lander C. Knox, (Pa.) ; Postmaster General, Menry C. 
Payne, (Wis.) ; Secretary of the Navy, William H. Moody, 
(Mass.) ; Secretary of the Interior, 1). A. Hitchcock, (Mo.) ; 
Secretary of Agriculture, James Wilson, (Iowa), and Secre- 
tary of the lately-created Department of Commerce and 
Ivabor, George B. Cortelyou, (N. Y. ) 

It should be noted that the President's power to grant 
reprieves and pardons does not extend to offenses against 
the laws of a state, but only to offenses against the laws 
of the United States. 

It is appropriate that the President be not permitted 
to grant pardons in cases of impeachment because he him- 
self, and many officials appointed by him, are subject to 
impeachment. Also, if an official is impeached and con- 
victed, that act represents the will of Congress, which is 
higher than the will of the President. 

Clause 2. He shall have power^ by and with the advice 
and consent of the Senate^ to make treaties, provided two- 
thirds of the Senators present concur ; and he shall nominate, 
and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate shall 

13 



CIVIL GOVERyMEXT 

appoint ambassadors^ other public ministers and consuls^ 
judges of the Supreme Courts and all other officers of the 
United States^ whose appointments are not herein otherwise 
provided for., and which shall be established by law ; but the 
Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior 
officers., as they think proper^ in the President alone^ in the 
courts of law., or in the heads of departments. 

If Congress had the power to make treaties there could 
not be the promptness of action which is sometimes neces- 
sary. Delay in time of war might cause much unnecessary 
loss of life, in time of peace loss of wealth, especially in 
connection with our commercial dealings with other coun- 
tries. Then, too, secrecy is often necessary. This require- 
ment can be met better by an individual than by the Con- 
gress. 

The Senate's * 'advice" is not usually asked by the 
President in making a treaty, but only its * 'consent" after-^ 
the treaty is drawn up. 

The word treaty is defined as "a formal agreement or 
contract between nations." 

Whenever a treaty involves the expenditure of national 
funds the House of Representatives is usually consulted, 
as it has control of the raising of revenue. 

In theory the President does not make appointments, 
but nominations ; that is he makes a list of those he wishes 
to appoint, presents it to the Senate, and the Senate either 
confirms or rejects. Practically, the nomination is equiv- 
alent to appointment, for the Senate very seldom refuses 
to confirm a nomination. 

The President may remove any ofi&cer appointed by 
himself, except judges of the United States courts, who 
are appointed for life. 

14 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

This part of the President's power was thus com- 
mented upon by Alexander Hamilton: "The blame of a 
bad nomination would fall upon the President singly and 
absolutely. The censure of rejecting- a good one would lie 
entirely at the door of the Senate ; aggravated by the con- 
sideration of their having counteracted the good inten- 
tions of the executive. If an ill appointment should be 
made, the executive for nominating and the Senate for 
approving would participate, though in different degrees, 
in the opprobrium and disgrace." 

A great many inferior officers and helpers are ap- 
pointed by the heads of departments ; for instance, all 
postmasters who receive a salary of less than $1,000 per 
year are appointed by the Postmaster General, tnose who 
receive more than that are appointed by the President. 

Clause 3, The President shall have power to fill up all 
vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate^ 
by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of 
their next session. 

It would not be feasible to call the Senate together 
solely to confirm a nomination, nor would it be wise ordi- 
narily to allow a position to remain vacant. The Presi- 
dent may, therefore, fill vacancies that happen when the 
Senate is not in session. An official, appointed in this 
manner, cannot hold his office beyond the next session of 
the Senate, unless the President nominates him when the 
Senate meets and he receives his commission in the usual 
way. 

Section III. He shall from time to time give to the Con- 
gress inform,ation of the state of the Union, and recommend 
to their consideration such m,easures as he shall judge neces- 
sary and expedient ; he m,ay, on extraordinary occasions ^ 
convene both Houses, or either of them., and in case of disa- 

15 



CIVIL, GOVERNMENT 

greement between them with respect to the time of adjourn- 
m-entj he m>ay adjourn them to such time as he shall think 
proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public m^in- 
isters ; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed^ 
and shall commission all the officers of the United States. 

The President sends a messag-e to Congress soon after 
it assembles in regular session, and special messages 
when he deems it necessary. It is the purpose of a mes- 
sage to discuss conditions of interest to Congress and to 
make recommendations concerning needed legislation. 

The President does not deliver his message in person. 
A clerk in each House reads the message to the members. 
Washington and Adams delivered their messages in per- 
son ; but Jefferson, because, as he said, this is in imitation 
of the custom in England, introduced the present practice. 
Some say he did it because he could write much better 
than he could speak. 

Twelve extra sessions of Congress have been called ; 
one by John Adams, one by Jefferson, two by Madison, 
one by Van Buren, one by Wm. Henry Harrison, one by 
Pierce, one by lyincoln, two by Hayes, one by Cleveland 
and one by McKinley. 

The Senate has frequently been convened separately. 
The House of Representatives has never been so convened. 

Congress has never been adjourned by the President 
because the two Houses have always agreed upon the time. 

The duty of receiving representatives of other nations 
is a very delicate one, as the manner in which this is done 
may make or break friendly relations. 

If a foreign ambassador is objectionable the President 
may insist on his recall. In time of war it is customary 
for a nation to recall its ambassador from the country with 
which it is fighting. 

16 



CIVIIL, GOVERNMENT 

The duty to "take care that the laws be faithfully 
executed" is the President's broadest and most important 
task. Under this injunction he should watch with eagle 
eye the actions of those under him in the administration 
of law. Whether a law is, in his opinion, wise or unwise, 
matters not. It is his duty to see that it is enforced and 
he may use the army and navy, if necessary, in the en- 
forcement of law. General Grant said: "If you have a law 
upon your statute books, enforce it ; if it is objectionable, 
repeal it." 

Section IV. The President ^ Vice-President, and all civil 

officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on 

im^peachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other 

high crimes and misdemeanors. k 

The term, "civil officers" is not defined by the consti- 
tution. It doubtless includes all officers commissioned by 
the President. Members of Congress are not subject to 

impeachment. 

( The student is referred to the discussion of impeach- 
ment in connection with Article I, Section II, Clause 5, 
and Article I, Section III, Clause 6.) 



17 



CIVIIL. GOVERISTMENT 



OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

(FOURTH PAPE^R.) 

1. Define capitation tax. 

2. Why should not duties be levied on exports? 

3. What is meant by "Entering" and by ''Clearing" 
a port? What unjust requirements did Great Britain make 
in this connection? 

4. How are the public funds guarded against improper 
expenditure? 

5. Why are public officials forbidden to accept foreign 
titles and gifts? 

6. What is the general nature of powers forbidden to 
the States? 

7. Why was the executive power vested in one person? 

8. What differences of opinion existed among the 
framers of the constitution as to the term of office of the 
President? 

9. Why was it not decided to elect the President by 
popular vote? 

10. How is the President elected? 

11. Outline the twelfth amendment? 

12. On what day do voters cast their ballots for elect- 
ors? On what day do the electors **Give their votes?" 

13. What must be the qualifications of a candidate for 
the presidency? 

14. What is the order of succession to the presidency? 

15. What salary and other emoluments does the Presi- 
dent receive? 

16. Why is such a large salary necessary? 

17. When and before whom does the President take the 
oath of office? 

18. What relation has the President to the army and 
navy? 

19. Name the cabinet offices and officers. 

20. In whom is the power to make treaties vested? Ad- 
vantages of this method? 

21. Enumerate the powers and duties of the President. 

22. Discuss the appointive power of the President. 

23. By whom are inferior officers appointed? 

24. How often does the President send a message to 
Congress? What is the purpose of a message? How is it 
delivered? 



t8 



DIDACTICS. 

(FOURTH PAPER. ) 

''There is no substitution for thoroughgoing, sincere 
earnestness." 

TEACHERS. 

Teachers are divisible into two classes with reference 
to permanency in the profession, viz.: those who engage 
in it as a temporary occupation, as a "make-shift" while 
preparing themselves for entering upon some other line of 
employment for their life work, or for the purpose of tiding 
themselves over some temporary financial embarrassment. 
This class of individuals should not be considered as per- 
sons intended to be classed as teachers by the school laws 
of a State. 

The second class are those who in the beginning of 
their business career select teaching as a profession, as 
others select the practice of law or of medicine, intending 
to devote their whole time and energy to the work, and to 
increase their scholastic qualifications as time and experi- 
ence show their lack of intellectual equipment. Whatever 
be the reasons which lead them to dedicate themselves to 
this life of labor, discouragement, lack of appreciation, 
and paucity of pecuniary emoluments which let their lives 
be lives of self-denial, certain it is that few consider the 
high standard which such men and women should set before 
them when they make their choice, ^specially is this true 
of the public school work. The true teacher is an educator 
in a wider sense than is usually given to this term. He is 
not satisfied with simply being the instrument used in im- 
parting to his pupils some degree of knowledge of the sub- 
ject matter of text-books. He himself is a text-book; he is 
the model upon which is formed the mental and moral 



DIDACTICS 

characters of those committed to his care; he is indeed the 
instrument for drawing out to their most useful extent 
the faculties of his pupils. He is not only a teacher, but 
is a missionary as well. 

Legal Qualifications of Teachers.— In accordance 
with the powers conferred by the constitution, the State in 
the exercise of its right to control in all matters pertaining 
to the general welfare of its citizens, alone determine the 
question of eligibility to the position of teacher in the 
public schools. This it does by requiring all teachers, 
prior to an engagement with a school board, to be the 
possessor of a certificate from the county superintendent 
or commissioner, which certificate may be of either the 
second grade, valid for one year, or of the first grade, 
valid for two years. This applies to all schools in Illinois, 
except in cases where a city or town is authorized by 
special charter to examine and certify its pwn teachers 
and in the case of teachers who hold State Certificates 
issued by the State Superintendent. In some of the states, 
Iowa and Missouri, for instance, third grade certificates are 
also issued. 

The state also limits the minimum age at which can- 
didates may be certified. In Illinois this is fixed at seven- 
teen years for female, and eighteen years for male teach- 
ers — ages which are too immature to enable one to acquire 
the mental endowments, and the knowledge of child nature 
which are absolutely essential to the proper performance 
of a teacher's duties. Far better for the schools were such 
young teachers relegated to the school room as pupils. A 
few more years in study would enable the embryo teacher 
to obtain a broader culture, a more thorough knowledge of 
the branches to be taught and a more mature judgment 
than is possessed by the great majority of teachers. 

2 



DIDACTICS 

In the choice of teachers grave errors are made by the 
persons to whom is given this authority, the greater num- 
ber of whom have been elected or appointed without any 
regard to their possession or non-possession of the quali- 
fications necessary to those who have such an important 
duty to perform. One great defect in the selection of 
teachers is the favoritism shown by the school boards. In- 
fluence, family, sectarian, social, or official, in its charac- 
ter should be, but rarely is, barred. The schools should be 
be thrown open, as the school laws require, to any teacher 
possessing the necessary qualifications. To be a relative 
of the most influential member of the board, is often the 
sole requisite to success. Schools naturally suffer from 
partiality shown in the choice of teachers as well as from 
that shown by teachers. 

IN tH^ SCHOOI, ROOM. 

It is inferred that the teacher will be the first one to 
appear upon the scene of duty. Especially should this be 
the case on the "first day of school." If a stranger to the 
pupils it will give him an opportunity of greeting, and be- 
coming partially acquainted with each new-comer indi- 
vidually. 

He should also have in his mind a definitely arranged 
plan, even for his first day's duties. Good first impres- 
sions upon the minds of the pupils aid much in the future 
management of a school. 

Pupils will insensibly form a more favorable idea of a 
new teacher who appears to know, than of one who is **at 
sea" from the start. Urrors into which the teacher will 
naturally fall can be remedied as time passes if he is sin- 
cere, and does not make the grave mistake of apparently 
claiming to be infallible. He should remember that his 
pupils are measuring him by his actions, more than by his 



DIDACTICS 

precepts, and they soon detect any falsity or subterfuge 
upon his part. Comparisons of opinions during- recess, 
and at home, are rights in which pupils and parents always 
engage. 

Programmes. — System and method are as necessary 
in the school room as elsewhere — if, indeed, not more neces- 
sary — if the best results are to be obtained. After spend- 
ing one or two days in making a temporary classification 
of his pupils — a step unnecessary in a graded system of 
schools where the work pursued by each pupil is supposed 
to fit him for promotion to a higher grade — the teacher 
should arrange a programme of daily recitations. This is 
absolutely necessary. It should be unclianged as long as 
it proves adapted to the needs of the school, and its hours 
should be punctually observed. No temporary change 
should be made, as is often done by teachers somewhat in- 
experienced and extremely anxious to give an impression 
to visitors that all the work of the school is equal to that 
which they see, when in fact only the classes or the pupils 
who can "make the finest show" are called in the presence 
of visitors. The pupils recognize the dishonesty of this 
course, though the visitor may be strongly impressed with 
the thoroughness of the teacher's work. 

Recitations. — The purpose of a recitation is two-fold: 
First, to examine the class in order to discover what 
portion of the subject matter is obscure to or unknown 

by the pupil. Second, to give ,instruction upon those 
points. There are some teachers of whom it can only be 
said, in the matter of recitations, that they are excellent 
"setters" and attentive listeners. They never, or at least 
rarely, ask'their pupils embarrassing questions on the topic 
of the day. If the pupil can "repeat the book," that is 
sufficient. As to whether the pupil understands it, and 

4 



DIDACTICS 

knows the subject as well as the words, such a teacher is 
content to remain blissfully ignorant. It saves him work. 
The number of recitations will be determined largely 
by the age, and degree of advancement of the pupils. It 
must not be forgotten in a mixed school that the youngest 
pupils learn only what they are personally taught by the 
teacher, hence, they should have frequent recitations. 
This is not necessary for older pupils whose age renders 
them independent of the teacher's aid except in some diffi- 
cult point. 

Punctuality in recitations should be strictly observed; 
the classes should be changed at the hour appointed upon 
the programme. If this is not done, one class will receive 
more, and its successor less than its just share of the time 
and instruction allotted to it. If visitors enter during a 
recitation do not interrupt it with long continued greet- 
ings, not even of the majestic Superintendent, but con- 
tinue with your duty. Visitors come to visit the school* 
not the teacher. 

Lectures. — Some teachers are very fond of talking'. 
They talk "in season and out of season." In their studies 
pupils learn some things better by their own efforts. They 
may need a little help over difficulties, but do not enjoy 
hearing their teacher talking during the whole time in- 
tended for recitation. Nor is it profitable to spend much 
of the time in lecturing upon "manners," etc., to the neglect 
of the other duties equally important. Pupils learn such 
things better by example than by precept. 

A teacher should continue to be a student. Knowl- 
edge is constantly increasing. If a teacher does not con- 
stantly increase his store of mental furniture, he soon 
finds himself "out of merchandise." He becomes, in com- 
parison with his more studious contemporaries, "stricken 

S 



DIDACTICS 

with poverty" of knowledg-e. From this very scantineas, 
of which heis self-conscious, he becomes timid, and a timid 
teacher soon loses his hold, not only upon his pupils, biit 
upon himself as well — Study. The brain has a singular 
power of furnishing- storage capacity for all knowledge 
that may appeal for room. Page says, **a teacher should 
regularly pursue a course of study to replenish his fading 
stock of knowledge." True now as when Page wrote it. 
Good schools are made by trained, educated teachers, not 
by those who think they have acquired enough education 
as soon as they obtained their first certificate and first 
school. 

Partiality is one of those charges brought so frequent- 
ly against teachers that there may be some foundation- in 
fact, because he should desire the good will and regard 
of all his pupils is a sufficient reason, though not the most 
noble one, why a teacher should treat all his pupils in a 
strictly impartial manner as pupils. It is perfectly natural 
that his sympathy, his affections, should be more warm to- 
wards those of his pupils who show an evident desire to 
gratify him in their course as pupils, but so much the more 
careful should he be to treat all under his charge with 
equal justice, equal kindness, and equal interest in their 
welfare. He is the teacher of the school, not of individuals 
especially favored. Outside of school limits he may be 
free to show his personal regards, but not in it. 

Methods. — Much unnecessary stress is laid upon 
"methods" in "Teachers' Institutes," and in some of the 
text-books of Pedagogy. Page, White, Angell, Scully, and 
other writers, base their theories in regard to methods up- 
on their own experience in the Public School, Academy or 
College. Many teachers fall into the error of thinking 
that all wisdom is embodied in the works of their favorite 



DIDACTICS 

author, and try to adopt their methods of instruction and 
management, to schools of varied character, and then won- 
der at their failure. The error is in themselves. A coat 
cannot be made to fit many persons of different stature. 
A method which would be successful with a "White," would 
probably be a failure with a "Brown." I^ach teacher must 
"invent" and adopt methods of his own, founded upon his 
knowledg-e of the needs of his school and the character of 
his pupils. Methods of others may be guides — they can be 
no more. Some definite method in the manner of hearing 
recitations and in other functions of a school should be 
adopted by every teacher. As an army becomes efficient 
through constant daily drill, so an unchanged -method in 
doing the same work, day after day, soon renders it a mat- 
ter of habit, and becomes a discipline of mind in uni- 
formity of action. 

Honesty is a requisite in the character of a true teach- 
er. A teacher is not infg,llible. His popularity with his 
pupils and patrons must not be purchased at the expense 
of truth in his dealings with either. It is pleasant to be 
popular, but self respect and strength of character may 
exist even when one is under a ban. Children soon detect 
dishonesty in open act or hidden motive, as they do favorit- 
ism. Teachers should not attempt to appear wiser than 
Solomon by making claims to the reputation of a "learned 
man," when he can show only a superficial knowledge. 
Better to say open and candidly, "I do not know, but will 
find out," in answer to some inquiry of a pupil, than to at- 
tempt concealment of ignorance by an obscure, evasive 
answer. 

Rules for the Government of Schools. — Article five, 
Section twenty-six, Illinois Statutes, declares "it shall be 
theduty of the Board of Directors of each district, to adopt 

7 



DIDACTICS 

and enforce all necessary rules and regulations for the man- 
agement and government of the schools. "The same authori- 
ty is granted to Boards of Education. So far as it affects the 
majority of Boards of Directors, this section of the School 
I^aw is virtually of no effect. In but few school districts 
are the rules for government of the schools submitted to the 
Board for their adoption or rejection, and seldom, except in 
the larger towns and cities, do such rules emanate directly 
from the Board of Education. The compiling of a code 
of rules is left to the teacher, and consequently in a school 
employing more than one teacher, there may be in vogue 
as many different systems as there are schools, none of 
which has any legal effect or value, except by implication. 
What Rules, how many to be adopted by the teacher, 
are important questions. In general terms it may be said, 
the fewer rules the better the school. A multiplicity of 
laws do not prevent the commission of crimes, nor will a 
long array of rules prevent pupils from violating the rights 
of their fellows. 

Discipline.— The exercise of authority is, of course, 
a necessary requisite to the progress of the pupils education- 
ally, as well as for the purpose of training them to obedi- 
ence to law as citizens. Do not, then, prepare for the guid- 
ance and government of your pupils a long list of rules. 
A very few enforced, will be far more valuable than many 
which are allowed to become dead letters. "Do what is 
right; avoid what you know is wrong," is a good school 
rule. It leaves the teacher some freedom in decision be- 
sides appealing to the highest motives in the pupil. 

Punishments.— There is, and of necessity, must be a 
wide diversity of opinion in regard to this branch of the 
pedagogic office. L<aws are made more for the restraint of 
those who are actuated by their own selfish qualities rather 



DIDACTICS 

than for the larg-er class of well disposed citizens who 
rarely feel themselves subject to the restraint of law. 
Penalties of a specified nature are affixed to crime, or to 
the civil offenses. But in the code of the school room, the 
punishment for improper conduct should be left to the dis- 
cretion of the teacher, and the teacher should make a dis- 
tinction between the willful, and the unwitting violation 
of a rule. It may be safely asserted that disorder of any 
character calling- for punishment will be less in schools 
in which the discipline of the school is the least formal and 
apparent. The "whipping post" need not be kept con- 
stantly in view. 

Punishment, in its severity, should bear s^e propor- 
tion to the enormity of the offense. It should not be threat- 
ened before an offense is committed. A threat binds the 
teacher but not the pupil. The threatened punishment 
must be inflicted, or the teacher be chargeable with incon- 
sistency. Punishments should be uniform in character. 
Two or more pupils guilty of a willful offense should be 
visited with the same punishment, or the teacher will be 
open to a just charge of favoritism. It is a question for 
individual decision whether punishment, especially whip- 
ping, should be inflicted in private, or in the presence of 
the school. In private it may be considered as a reform- 
atory act ; in public it could be classed only as deterrent 
and degrading. But it may be said in general terms that 
as pupils are admitted into the schools for educational pur- 
poses, a forced obedience to the regulations will be better 
than suspension from schools, even though the rod may 
be necessary to secure it. The rod, however, is not neces- 
sary as frequently as some teachers seem to think. Inter- 
views with parents to secure their co-operation will often 
obviate the necessity of resorting to it. 

9 



DIDACTICS 

Suspension and expulsion should be the last resort. 
Pupils whose habits, conduct, and influence, continue to 
exert an injurious influence upon their mates, and who 
seem to be incorrigibly bad, are proper subjects for sus- 
pension. The public schools are not reformatories, nor 
intended to be such. While teachers stand in loco parentis 
— in place of the parents in some respects, yet they have 
not the full powers over the child which the relation of 
parent and child grants to the parent, and the equal rights 
of other pupils must be constantly considered by the 
teacher. 

Recitation Marks.— Class books in which are to be 
recorded the character of the daily recitations of each pupil 
in a class may be useful records, though this is doubtful 
when we remember that, in the method of marking usually 
adopted, they are simply and only a record of the teacher's 
guess at the comparative value of the relation of a very 
small part of the assigned topic by the pupil, and in large 
classes of only a small portion of the class. How a teacher 
can determine whether a recitation, (not a knowledge) 
of a subject is 9.9; 7.3; or 2.1 ; as many attempt to mark 
on the percentage basis, "passeth understanding." A reci- 
tation is an entire *'f ailure, poor or good," and should 
be so marked. The knowledge of the subject is another 
matter. 

Deportment can be shown as "bad, good, excellent," 

but cannot be shaded into per cents. But this should be 

decided by the observation of the teacher, and not by the 

reports of the pupils, who will almost invariably stand high 
in their own opinion, and will so report when called upon 
at the close of the day. Self-reporting tends to encourage 
falsehood, not intentional perhaps, but still — falsehood. 
The only record which can show exact facts is the register 
of daily attendance and punctuality. 

10 



DIDACTICS 

Examinations. — These are of two classes, — the writ- 
ten monthly tests, and the final examinations at the close 
of the school term or year, All stated formal examina- 
tions are open to the objections that they are mere tests of 
the memory of the pupils, and do not show the extent of 
their knowledge of the topic upon which they are ex- 
amined; that the five or ten questions to be answered on 
the work of a week or month form but a mere skimming 
over the field ; that they are often unfair in their results 
because the pupil may be able to show a reputable knowl- 
edge of the branch, who fails to answer correctly the only 
question given him to answer, thereby compelling the 
teacher to all alike, the dull and the bright, the slow in ex- 
pression and the quick. This is really another Mrm. of un- 
fairness because it flatters the vanity of those who "pass," 
and discourages those who do not, but who in reality have 
a deeper acquaintance with the essentials of the study. 
Another objection is that very many teachers pin their 
faith and make their decisions upon the dictum of one 
text-book. As an illustration we may mention "Theory 
and Practice of Teaching" as a topic in which one teacher 
believes nothing that is not taught in his White, or Page, 
or Roark, or some other of the numerous works upon that 
subject. Probably the chief profit in holding monthly ex- 
aminations is found in the attention of parents being 
drawn to the standing of their children. 

Promotions in the great majority of schools are 
made only at stated times, usually at the end of a term or 
year. A pupil should be eligible for promotion at any 
time he shows his mastery of a subject and fitness for 
transfer to a more advanced line of work, and ability to 
perform it. Differences in natural ability, in energy, and 
ambition often will enable a pupil to make more rapid 

11 



DIDACTICS 

progress, to acquire more readily than his classmates. He 
should not be held back to the slower pace of less gifted 
pupils, but should be placed where the goal towards which 
he looks is high enough to arouse all his energies. 

External Duties. — Many persons appear from their 
actions to consider the teacher in the light of a police 
officer, having authorized control over pupils when not on 
the school premises ; that he has diciplinary rights in 
school over his pupils for offenses committed while on the 
way to or from his home. He has only the same moral 
right in such cases as belongs to any citizen, but no more. 
Out of school the pupils are citizens, subject to the civil 
authorities as other citizens, and if his teacher claims 
jurisdiction over him in one part of the town or country 
road, at one time, he may equally as well claim it upon Sat- 
urdayis, Sundays or vacations in any other part of the 
town. The school yard marks the limit of the teacher's 
domain. Incur not the danger of legal troubles, by at- 
tempting to extend an authority which the state has not 
defined in its limits. 

SUPERINTENDENTS. 

A theological student, graduating from his seminary 
must be examined and licensed by proper authorities in his 
church before he can duly perform all the functions of his 
office. 

A law student may stand high on the records of the 
college of law whose course he has completed, yet he must 
be examined in open court, or by an authorized committee 
before he can be admitted to practice in the courts of the 
state. 

A student of medicine and surgery may have shown 
himself the brightest intellect, the most scholarly student 
in his class in the best medical college in the land, yet the 

12 



DIDACTICS 

state does not permit him to assume the care of the sick 
unless he has been examined by, or has otherwise satisfied, 
the state as to his abilities. 

There are few who disapprove of these precautions 
which the state exercises in the protection of our interests 
and welfare in health and property. Yet in some respects 
these interests are of no greater importance than is the 
education of the children of the state. 

In many, if not in all the counties in any State the 
only requisite to obtain the position of County Superin- 
tendent of Schools, is ability upon the part of the candi- 
date to secure the nomination upon the ticket of the strong- 
est political party, and thus secure an election. In the 
nominating conventions, the chief question considered is, 
**can he aid in electing our ticket?" The question of qual- 
ifications for the position rarely enters into the discussion. 
In contrast with its stnrict requirements regarding the 
practice of law, medicine and theology, the state makes no 
investigation of the qualifications, mental or moral, of 
candidates for the position of Superintendent, — a position 
which is at least — or should be — of equal importance with 
those previously named. It protects, by license, our legal 
rights in property ; it protects, by license, our health from 
ignorant quackery ; it protects, by indirect license, the in- 
terests of souls, but it yields the schools, next in impor- 
tance to the homes, to persons who would be deemed un- 
fitted in every respect, for other even unimportant public 
duties. 

The Superintendent is officially the head of the 
school system of the country. Through the teachers 
licensed by him, he gives character to the schools. An 
ignorant, immoral, inexperienced Superintendent cannot 
cause the schools under his supervision to reach a high 

13 



DIDACTICS 

standing, chiefly because of his own deficiencies. The 
educational stream cannot rise higher than the educational 
spring. 

There is great need of amended requirements in the 
School I^aws of the states in this respect. County Super- 
intendents, and we add, Superintendents of Schools in our 
larger towns and cities as well, should not be even eligible 
to nominations, unless they are the possessors of State 
Certificates, as teachers are required to hold County Cer- 
tificates to establish their eligibility, and such an amend- 
ment can be effected, if teachers use their personal influ- 
ence, and that of their friends, upon the members of the 
legislatures. Try to bar out of your ranks, either as gen- 
eral or subaltern^ a man whom you know to be un- 
worthy of recognition by the profession. Counteract with 
all your influence the tendency to make the ofiice of Super- 
intendent simply a reward to some petty politician for his 
"work for the party," — or a position of such minor esteem 
in the estimation of voters, that they will consider any- 
body "good enough for Superintendent." Dignify your 
profession and it will in turn dignify you. 

A Superintendent should be strictly impartial in his 
official dealings with teachers. He should remember that 
the schools under his supervision are public schools, and 
that the election, — or rather the selection of teachers by 
School Boards should be unbiased by his personal likes or 
dislikes. He should be strictly impartial, just and honest 
in his examinations, and in issuing certificates, uninflu- 
enced by the envious, jealous, and critical remarks of one 
teacher regarding another. 

The Superintendent of Schools, city or county, should 
be superior in general education to the teachers whom the 
fates, — political or otherwise — have placed under his al- 

14 



DIDACTICS 

most irresponsible control. His moral character and hab- 
its should be "above suspicion;" he should be one whose 
teachers would not be ashamed to acknowledge him in any 
convocation. 

PRACTICAI, PEDAGOGY. 

The purpose of this part of our work will be to discuss 
at some length the subject of Keading, and to give sug- 
gestions as to the method of teaching it. 

ITS IMPORTANCE. 

Reading, because of its many practical applications in 
life, because of its bearing on other subjects and becuuse 
of its intrinsic value as a culture study, is the broadest 
and most far-reaching topic of the school course. Through 
it the child is enabled to pursue other subjects, ^nd with- 
out it the learning and culture of the ages remain locked 
in books. Indeed, without it the mastery of any subject 
would be very limited. 

THE TEACHER'S AIMS. 

The objects to be attained by the teacher are three- 
fold : First, the mechanical obstacles of the subject must 
be overcome. The child must learn to recognize and pro- 
nounce the printed forms of the language with ease and 
rapidity. Second, the power to get thought from the printed 
page, thus enabling the child to use his reading for acquir- 
ing knowledge. Third, the ability to convey to others by 
means of oral reading the thought of the printed page. 

REI<ATIVE IMPORTANCE OF AIMS. 

Of course it is clear that the second and third objects 
cannot be attained without the thorough mastery of the 
first, yet in considering their relative importance, it is 
necessary to bear in mind the practical value of reading 
which comes, not from the pronouncing and recognizing 
of words, but from the power of acquiring the thought in- 
tended by the connected words. 

15 



DIDACTICS 

Many children attain the first object, they pronounce 
words with great fluency, but remain blissfully ignorant 
of the meaning the author of the words intended to convey. 
It often happens that pupils reach the high school without 
the ability of accurately getting the thought from the 
printed page. Indeed, much of the poor work in the higher 
schools can be traced to the lack of training in this respect. 
Children fall into the habit of using words which convey 
no meaning to them. They are, as Dr. Frank Hall says, 
"Symbols which do not symbolize." Teachers cannot take 
too much pains in training their readers to get quickly 
and accurately the thought of the reading lesson. 

The conveying the thought to others can only be done 
after it has been grasped by the reader, and inasmuch as 
this form of reading is becoming rarer, it is of relatively 
less importance than "thought getting." 

OBSTACI^ES TO BE OVERCOME. 

The learning to read is in itself a difficult task, for it 
is a long step from spoken to written language. This 
difficulty is enhanced by the limited intellectual powers of 
the child when it enters the school at the age of six. In 
order not to discourage the beginner and at the same time 
keep his interest from flagging, great care needs to be 
exercised by the teacher. Many short lessons interspersed 
with rests are essential. Besides these difficulties which 
come to the class as a whole, there are individual ones, 
such as the imperfect formation of sounds, the use of local 
pronunciations and provincialisms, all of which are ex- 
pected to be corrected by the teacher, notwithstanding the 
fact that pupils are under her care but a short time, while 
the corrupting influence is almost continuously at work. 

METHODS. 

At the beginning of her work the vital question to the 
teacher is, what method shall I use in overcoming the diffi- 

16 



DIDACTICS 

culties and securing the desired results. While there are 
many methods of teaching- reading- in use, all of them can 
be placed under the head of Synthetic or Analytical 
according- as the process involved in the method goes from 
the letter or sound to the word and sentence, or vice-versa. 
Those who hold to the view that the training of the pupils 
in the power to recognize and pronounce words is of chief 
importance, favor the synthetic method, while those who 
believe with Horace Mann that **tliought getting" is 
the primary object in teaching reading will be inclined to- 
ward the analytical method. The following scheme shows 
the various methods grouped under the general heads: 

(ABC Method, ( Word Method. 

Synthetic \ Phonic Method, Analytic •< Sentenc^Method. 
( Syllabic Method. ( Thought Method. 

All are familiar with the a b c metliod and know how 
a child learns his a b c's, combines them into words of one 
syllable and finally after a long and tedious process begins 
to read. A discussion of this method is not necessary. It 
is sufficient to say that, although it gives to us good spell- 
ers, it entails great loss of time on the part of the child. 

PHONIC METHOD. 

Here the phonic method will be taken as the type of 
the synthetic. This method aims to connect the sounds 
with the forms of letters, to train the child to form words 
by the union of their phonic elements. The teacher pro- 
nounces a word. She pronounces it again more slowly, 
bringing out the sounds that make up the words. The 
children repeat their sounds and are in this way trained to 
spell each word phonetically. This method is successful 
in words made up of the sounds of all their letters. While 
there are many such words, still our language is not essen- 
tially phonic, and hence this method must remain limited 
in its application. 

17 






DIDACTICS 

WORD AND SENTENCE METHODS. 

By the word method the child is taught to recognize 
words as a whole regardless of their elements. To teach 
the word cat the teacher after talking about a cat writes 
or prints the word cat on the blackboard. The child is 
told that what is written stands for cat just as the picture 
on the chart represents the cat. The child then turns to 
the chart and with a little help soon finds the word cat in 
several places. It thus learns to recognize this word and 
within a few days it can recognize quite a large number of 
words, so that within a period of six weeks the child has 
acquired the ability to read simple sentences. It is found, 
however, that the exclusive use of this method leaves the 
child weak in its power to make out new words. The 
sentence method, instead of taking single words as a 
basis, takes simple sentences. The sentence is first taught 
as a whole by writing it on the board. Then the words 
making up the sentence are taught by the word method. 
The advantage of this method is that by it the child learns 
to read the sentence as a unit instead of breaking it up 
into words. By this means a more natural expression is 
secured than by the word method alone. 

CHOICE OF METHOD. 

It is well to remember that there is some good in every 
method and that any method, carried to an extreme is 
dangerous. Also that a poor plan well executed is better 
than a good one poorly carried out. 

The a h c method has the sanction of long usage, 
but it is tedious and unnatural. The phonic secures a 
good enunciation and is second in principle, being based 
on the maxim that its whole is made up of all its parts, but 
it is limited in application because of the fact that our 
language is not wholly phonic. The word method is 

18 



DIDACTICS 

quick, is liked by pupils and teachers, but it fails to give 
the necessary power of acquiring new words. As teacher 
and superintendent I have seen and used all of the above 
methods, and it is my belief that on the whole the word 
method is the best, but that it should be used in connection 
with others. I^et it be the basis of instruction, but intro- 
duce enough of the phonic to secure distinct and accurate 
enunciation, and as pupils advance, teach them to spell 
the words, thus giving them the necessary requisites for 
making out new ones. 

ADVANCED READING. 

As soon as the mechanical difficulties of the subject 
have been overcome, the question before the tedfeher is one 
of training in "thought-getting" and "thought-impart- 
ing." Before the child can express the meaning to others 
he must acquire it for himself. Hence, the first thing to 
do is to give him practice in this work. One of the best 
plans is to have the pupils tell the thought in their own 
words. This should be done orally, thus affording the 
teacher an opportunity of seeing and correcting the defects 
of the pupil and at the same time furnishing a good basis 
for language work. When once the pupil acquires the 
thought, he is ready for practice in oral reading. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD READING. 

Distinct enunciation, correct pronunciation, fluency, 
variety of expression, proper emphasis, and naturalness 
constitute the essentials of good reading. Of these the 
first three are acquired by constant drill under the direc- 
tion of the teacher. The remaining three are attained 
through a thorough conception of the thought, and in no 
other way. 

19 



DIDACTICS 

NATURAI^NESS. 

This requisite of g-ood reading" is so vital as to deserve 
special mention, for it is this that determines the atten- 
tion of the listeners and arouses interest in them. When" 
ever pupils begin to be unnatural you may be quite sure 
that they are pronouncing- words and not imparting 
thought. In its absence follows too fast reading, improper 
emphasis, lack of expression and disregard for all punctu- 
ation marks. Indeed, the success of a teacher of reading 
may be fairly gauged by observing whether the reading is 
affected or natural. In almost every instance the affected 
reader does not understand what he reads and sooner or 
later forms a distaste for the subject. Of course, where 
pupils possess defects peculiar to themselves, such as a 
disagreeable manner, or a harsh tone, these must be cor- 
rected by the teacher, but it is always best to speak of 
these in a private conversation at the close of school and 
not before the entire class. 

EMPHASIS. 

Another point which claims a teacher's attention is 
emphasis, by which is meant the special stress of voice 
placed on certain words or expressions to bring out clearly 
the author's meaning. Improper emphasis often changes 
the thought entirely. For instance, when in the sentence, 
"It is a very good essay," the word ''very" is emphasized, 
the meaning is quite different from what it would be were 
such emphasis omitted. To secure proper emphasis it is 
necessary to get the pupil imbued with the thought, and 
then the proper stress is sure to follow. 

PUNCTUATION MARKS. 

There is a mistaken idea that thought depends on the 
punctuation, when just the opposite is true. Punctuation 
marks are always subservient to sense and are used by 
writers to make the thought clearer. With young pnpils 
it is a good plan to have them make pauses according to 
the marks, but with older pupils pauses and inflections of 
the voice should be made to harmonize with the sense, 
otherwise the reading will be mechanical. 

READING IN CONCERT. 

At one time this form of instruction was common, not 
only in reading, but in other branches. The Geography 

20 



DIDACTICS 

and tables in Arithmetic were sung. Happily for all, this 
method has gone out of date. Concert reading has one 
advantage in that it gives confidence to the timid child. 
For this purpose it should be employed to a limited extent 
with young pupils, but it should always be borne in mind 
that such reading tends to neglect the individual and 
leads to superficial work. 

ASSIGNING THE) I^KSSON. 

I have often heard teachers say at the close of the reci- 
tation period, **Take the next lesson." This is a serious 
mistake, for in assigning the lesson the teacher has a 
chance to anticipate, and, therefore, prevent errors. Atten- 
tion should be called to the pronunciation of new words, 
and definite directions given for the preparation of the 
lesson. It often happens that a pupil spends much time 
and energy on what he afterwards finds to betof little 
importance. This is equally true in all subjects. It is 
the teacher's duty to prevent such a waste of nerve force 
and direct it into right channels. In reading it is often 
well for the teacher to read portions of the lesson to the 
class in giving it out, for if the pupils are to practice read- 
ing aloud, it is well that they have a good model to follow, 
for children are all imitators and learn much in this way. 
It is a mistake to spend too much of the reading period in 
writing definitions of words — definitions which often mean 
nothing to the writers. The recitation period is for drill 
in reading, and it is far better that pupils give the mean- 
ing of words in their own language. It is easy to conduct 
a class by having them write definitions. It is hard to 
stand before a class and drill its members in the art of 
imparting thought, and hence the popularity of the former 
plan. 

SUPPI^EMENTARY READING. 

After a Reader has been in use a year or two the stories 
become so familiar to the children that much of the work 
becomes a matter of memory, so that good results cannot 
be obtained. To remedy this defect supplementary read- 
ing matter should be introduced. For this purpose the 
classics and folklore stories are adapted to the lower 

21 



DIDACTICS 

grades. Through them the children's imaginations are 
fed and much useful knowledge acquired. In the upper 
grades selections from the standard American and I^ng- 
lish authors may well be used. 

OUTSIDE READING. 

In the life of each individual there is a time in which 
his desire for reading is very strong. It seems as though 
nature intended that the child's power of imagination be 
developed at this period, for certain it is that the boy or 
girl who reaches the age of fifteen without having acquired 
a taste for reading seldom acquires one in later life. At 
this age pupils will read. If they cannot get good books 
they will take bad ones. Who is going to guide and en- 
courage this reading? The one person best fitted to do it 
is the teacher, but alas, too many shirk this most impor- 
tant duty and permit their pupils to be fed on cheap litera- 
ture. It is an easy matter for a teacher to control this 
outside reading. One way is to require certain books to be 
read in connection with Geography, certain other books 
supplementary to History, and so on until enough books 
of the right kind are listed to satisfy the child's craving 
for reading. 

DAII,Y PREPARATION OP TEACHERS. 

A general notion prevails among people that a teach- 
er's day begins at nine o'clock in the morning and closes 
at four in the afternoon. Nothing could be farther from 
the truth, for the successful teacher spends as much time 
in preparation as she does in the school room. However, 
this erroneous idea has in a measure taken hold of some 
teachers and is doing the schools as well as the teaching 
profession much harm. To how many teachers has the 
thought occurred that the length of school session is deter- 
mined through a consideration for the child, and that be- 
cause it should not be closely confined for more than five 
or six hours, school sessions are made short? Hence it 
comes that a teacher's time belongs to her school whether 
it be in session or not. Conscientious teachers recognize 
and heed this fact, but there are those who from the time 
school closes until it opens give no thought to their work. 

22 



DIPACTICS 

Parties, receptions, amusements of all kinds are indulged 
in, and yet such teachers wonder why they do not succeed. 
A teacher's life is one of hard work and self-denial. 
Pleasures must be foregone in order that she may be in a 
physical and mental condition to meet her classes. Even 
in primary reading, daily preparation is needed. The 
thought must be refreshed in the teacher's mind, and plans 
made for presenting it to her pupils. In advanced classes 
this is still more essential, for here it will be hard at best 
to secure attention, and without a carefully worked out 
plan the work is almost sure to be poor. Nor can a teacher 
rely on plans prepared on previous years. Plans must be 
worked over in order to be filled with new life. Teachers 
who trust to their fine Normal or Collegiate training, or 
who teach from well thumbed note books are never so suc- 
cessful as those who make careful daily preparation for 
each lesson. I^et each teacher bear in mind that tfto much 
importance cannot be given to this phase of her work, then 
may she rest assured that her position will remain stable 
and that through her work she will become a power for 
good in the community in which she labors. 

To impart knowledge is not the whole duty of the 
teacher, as some seem to imagine, nor is it one of her 
greatest duties. To develop the power of the pupil's mind 
is of the highest importance. The teacher should lead 
him to see and to understand a thing for himself. Tell 
nothing that the pupil is able to find out for himself. The 
teacher is to make suggestions, explain away difficulties 
and direct his mind in the proper channels of thought. By 
this means he will to a great extent become independent 
of the teacher and more self-reliant, and thus he becomes 
a teacher unto himself. This is of more importance than 
the mere acquisition of knowledge. 

After a thing is once learned in this way the mind is 
strengthened and is capable of surmounting greater diffi- 
culties. When this power is acquired by the pupil, the 
teacher should give frequent drills in the subjects taught 
to develop his skill. 

23 



DIDACTICS 
OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

( FOURTH PAPER. ) 

1. Why does the State require teachers to be certified? 

2. Why should the teacher have a definite plan of work 
for the first day? 

3. What advantag-e has a graded school in the opening 
of the year's, work? 

4. Why should the teacher have a fixed program? 

5. What two objects in a recitation? 

6. Is it important for teachers to be familiar with more 
than one text-book upon any subject? Why? 

7. Name four characteristics which should be possessed 
by a Superintendent. 

8. How does the subject of reading rank with others 
in the school course? Give reasons for your answer. 

9. What three objects should the teacher aim at in 
teaching reading? 

10. Which one must be reached first? Why? 

11. What, aside from its intrinsic difiSculty, stands in 
the way of the attainment of this object? 

12. Which of the three objects is most important? 
Why? 

13. What are the two general methods for teaching 
primary reading? 

14. What methods may be grouped under each head? 

15. Kxplain fully each method and tell which one you 
would use, and why? 

16. What things are to be aimed at in advanced reading? 

17. What faults are children likely to fall into? 

18. What one thing will do more than any other to 
keep children out of these faults? 

19. What is emphasis? Why is it important? 

20. What danger is there in teaching pupils to pay too 
much attention to punctuation marks? With what should 
these marks be connected? 

24 



ALGEBRA. 

(FOURTH PAPER.) 

"They conquer, who believe they can." 

SIMPI^E EQUATIONS. 

An Kquation is the indication of the equality of two 
quantities by the use of the equality sign ( = ), by which 
the two parts of the equation are connected. Thus, x=nt 
-f-« is an equation in which x is equal to the sum of w and n. 
The parts of an equation are called members. That 
upon the left of the sign is called the first miember; that 
on the right is called the second member. In the equa- 
tion above, x is the first member and tn and n the second. 

A Numerical Equation is one in which the known 
quantities are indicated by arithmetical figures. EJx. 4-}-3=7. 
A lyiteral Equation is one in which some or all of the 
known quantities are indicated by letters, which may, or 
may not, be affected with numeral coefficients. Ex. — 5a;+ 
3=8; a;+ji'=l7. 

Note.— Bourdon, and some other algebraists, make this distinction, 
viz.— A Numeral Equation is one in which numerals are used as the 
coefficients of the unknown quantities; a I^iteral Equation is one in 
which the coefficients are letters. 

A Simple Equation is an equation of the first de- 
gree, i. e., one which contains only the fii^st power of the 
unknown quantity, as, 3a;=12. 

A Quadratic Equation is one which involves the second 
degree or square of the unknown quantity; x^-\-2x=27, 

A Cubic Equation is one of the third degree; as, 
x«+7=34. 

The degree of an equation is independent of the num- 
b er of the unknown terms it contains. 



ALGEBRA. 

TRANSFORMATION OF EQUATIONS. 

The Transformation of an equation signifies changing 
its form without changing the equality of its members. 

This change of form includes clearing an equation of 
fractions, transposing its terms, and reducing the equation 
to its simplest form. These operations are governed by 
the following axioms. 

1. If equal quantities be added to, or subtracted from 
both members of an equation, its value will not be altered. 

2. If both members of an equation be multiplied or 
divided by the same quantity, its value will not be altered. 

3. Ivike powers and like roots of both members of an 
equation are equal. 

CI^EARING AN EQUATION OF FRACTIONS. 

Kule. — Multiply both members of the equation by the 

least common multiple of the denominators, and reduce all 

fractional terms to integers. ( Axiom 2. ) 

Note. — All integers in the primary equation must be multiplied as 
well as the fractious. Pupils often n^lect to do this. Furthermore, 



any common multiple of the denor.iii«^8MBpray be used, 

X X "«-' 

1. Clear of fractions "3+'4 — x=12. 

X X 

Solution. — By the problem, -^-{-^—x=12. 

Multiplying by the L,. C. D., 12, 4x-\-3x—nx=lU. 

XX 3 

2. Clear 7'+2'~^="8* 

Multiplying by 56, the ly. C. D., 8a;+28a;— 168=21. 
Combining and transposing, 56iC=189. 

a-\-b a — b 3 

3. Clear the equation, -^^f^—^i=-^zib^. 

Thelv. C. D., ^{a—b){> ^-b). 
Multiplying by the Iv. ' D., 

a^-{-2ab-{-b^— ^—2ab-]-b^)=3. 
Removing the parent' iis, a^-\-2ab-\-b^—a^-\-2ad—b^^Z. 
Combining, 4ab=3. 



ALGEBRA. 

EXAMPlyES. 

Clear the following equations of fractions: 

1. -|4-|— 4=3. Ans. 7a;+Sa;— 140=105. 

2. x+-?+4=16. Ans. Sa;+x+20=80. 

3a; 

3. 2x-\--^=30. Ans. 12a;+3a;=120. 

4. |_}_-|_|=4. Ans. 14a;H-10a;— 35a;=280. 

5 -5—^+^=15. Ans. 10a;-12a;+15a;=900. 
6 5 ' 4 

6. -^+1=-^. Ans. a;-2+10=-2x-h8. - 

Note.— Remember that a minus sign before a fraction g-overns all 
the signs of the numerator, when the fraction is cleared. Watch the 
Signs. 

7. -^4-4=4 Ans. 5a;+60— 20x=9-3a;. 

3 — X ' o 

x-\-9 2x ^ 3x— 6 
9. -T-+-7— 2=-5-- 

2x-\-A 4x— 51 ^ 
10. -f-+^^7-=0. 

Ans. 8a;+16— 40=3«— 9+4X+8. 

6x+3 , 2a;— 5 

12. 5»-17^ =— 4— +— 6— . 

13. ^--|(3a;-l)=x-2. 

Ans. 5x+5— 9a;+3=15a;-30. 

3a;-3 IS 274-4a; 

14. K(3a;-3)— — 3— =-3— — 9— . 

Ans. 27a^-27— 36x+36=180-108— 16a;. 
3 



ALGEBRA. 

ax — b x4-ac ^ 

15. -^+a=-£-. 

Ans. ax — d-\-ac=x-\-ac, 

X — 2 X — 4 X — 5 

16. ^^-+^-=7+_g_. 

The second step in the transformation of an equation is 

TRANSPOSITION. 

Transposition, (trans, across + ponere, to place,) is 
the operation of transferring* a term, or terms, from one 
member of an equation to the other, without affecting the 
equality of the members, and is done for convenience in 
reducing- the number of terms, and thus simplifying the 
equation. 

This operation is performed by the application of 
Axiom 1. 

Ii,i,ustraTion: 3aj— 6=2a;+10. In this example it is 
necessary to collect the unknown terms into one member 
of the equation, and the known into the other member, and 
then to reduce each set of similar terms into one. Apply- 
ing Axiom 1. 

3a;— 6=2a;-{-10 (1). 
2x ~2x (2). subtract, 

a— 6= 10 (3). 

6= 6 (4). add. 



X = 16 Answer. 

But instead of using such an extended mode we may 
write equation I. in its transposed form thus, 3a;— 2a;=10-f 6, 
hence a;=16. From this we deduce the 

Kule for Transposition. To transpose a term 
from one member of an equation to the other, simply 
change its sign, after transposing it to the opposite 
member of the equation. 



AI.GEBRA. 

When an equation has been transformed, it is then 
ready for the final operation called the Solution or 
Kednction, (a better term.) 

The solution of an equation is the process of finding 
such a value for the unknown quantity, as would answer 
the conditions of the equation if it were substituted for the 
unknown term. All Simple Equations of the first degree 
can be solved by the following 

I. Clear the equation of fractions; 
II. Transpose all unknown terms into the first 
member, and all known terms into the second; 

III. Reduce both members to single terms; 

IV, Divide both members by the coeflScient of the 

unknown quantity; the quotient of the second member 

will bie the value of the unknown term. 

3a; 2x Sx 

Solve -6"~^+"3'='l2 +^- 

The L. C. D. =12. 

Multiplying by ly. C. D., 6»— 72+8a;=Sa;+36. 

Transposing, 6a;4-8a;— 5aj=36+72. 

Combining, 9x=108. 

Therefore, a;=12 Ans. 

^XAMPI,^S. 

Solve: 

aj— 3 X 2a;— 19 ^ ^^,„ 

1. — 2"+:3=20— — 2~"* ^^^- «=16lf« 

2a; 6a; ^ Sx ^ . 

2. -^— -^+2a;=^— 6. Ans. a;=— 24. 

3a;— 3a 2a;— 3^ 2a— 2x , . ^^ . ^.r 

3. — 5 — — — c — — — 4 — =10a+ll*. Ans. x=25a-{-24b, 

» 8— a; 10+2a; 11 
*• 12— "8"~~T~+T"=0- Ans. a;=12. 



ALGEBRA. 



^' a-\-x^2a—2x^. a^—x^' ^^^' ^= c~' 

^ (a+b){x—d) Aab—b"^ 

6. — TL — T\ — 3a = 



7. 



( a — b ) a-\-b ' 

2ab-\-2x 2b^—2x Sx—3b Sab—Sx 
2b^ ~~ 2a% ^ 3a2 "~ 5^2 ' 

Zax—2b Sax — 3a Sax 



^' b ~ 2b = b-^' . 

PROBlvBMS. 

The distinction between a problem and an equation 
is found in the fact that in an equation a complete state- 
ment is made of the conditions of a proposition, while in 
a problem, no statement is made; hence the solution of a 
problem is usually classified as consisting- of three parts, 
viz: 

I. The Statement in Algebraic terms of the relation 
of the known and unknown quantities included in the 
proposition. 

11. The Solution.— finding from this Statement such 
a value for the unknown quantity as w^uld 

III. Verify,— by substituting this value of the unknown 
quantity in the primary equation. 

PROBI^EMS. 

1, An estate of $5,600 was divided among three heirs, 
A., B. and C. B. was to have twice as much as A,; C. 
twice as much as B. How much did each get? 
Model solution. 

lyet a;=A.'s share, 
\ then 2x=B.'s share, 

and 4a;=C.'s share. 
a._}.2a;-|-4a;=$5,600 . . . . ( 1 ) 



(Reducing) 7aj=$5,600 

(Dividing) a;=$ 800 

2a;=$l,600 

4a;=$3,200 



(2) 

(3) A.'s share. 

B.'s share. 

C.'s share. 



Verifying. .$S,600=Total. 



2. Cash deposited in a bank was to be divided among 
four children as follows: The oldest was to have $500 less 
than his next younger brother; the third son was to 
receive $500 more than twice as much as the oldest child, 
and the youngest should have as much as all the others 
plus $1,000. The total deposit was $23,000. How much did 
each son receive? (L<et x= oldest son's share; then a;+500 
= second son's; 2a;+$500= third son's; 4a;4-$2,000=fourth 
son's share. Make equation and solve). 

Answer: $ 2,500= first son's share. 

3,000= second son's share. 
5,500= third son's share. 

12,000= fourth son's share. 

% 

3. Two carpenters, who had four apprentices, em- 
ployed sixteen journeymen to assist in building a house 
for $5,000. Each carpenter was to retain $3.50 per day for 
his share; the apprentices were to have $1.00 per day, and 
the journeymen $3.00 per day. How many days did they 
work? Ans. 100 days. 

4. Piles for a pier were driven X their length into the 
bottom of a river; % their length was in the water, and 20 
feet projected above the surface. How long was each pile? 

X X 

Equation: -7+3'+20=a;. Ans. 48 feet. 

5. I bought a horse, saddle and bridle for $114. The 
saddle cost me 2)4 times as much as the bridle; the horse 
10 times as much as the saddle. What did each cost? 

Ans. Bridle, $4; saddle, $10; horse, $100. 

6. Two conductors discharge water into a cistern. 
The larger one alone can fill it in 6 hours; the smaller one 
in 8 hours. In what time can both fill it? Ans. 3 2/7 hrs. 

7 



ALGEBRA. 

7. If a man spends % of his income for board, yi for 
clothing-, 1/5 for schooling his children, 1/10 for charity, and 
saves $200, how much is his salary? Ans. $1714 2/7 . 

8. A man spent $200 more than 2/7 of his income, and 
saved $1100 more than X of it. What income had he? 

Ans. $2800. 

9. What two numbers, whose sum is 280, are to each 
other as 4 to 10? Ans. 80 and 200. 

10. An officer arranged his men in a solid square and 
had SO men remaining. But if he increased the number in 
each file by one man he lacked 51 men. How many were in_ 
his brigade? Ans. 2550 men. 

11. Divide **a" dollars into three parts so that the 

second part shall be "^" times the first, and the third **^" 

times the first. 

a ab ac 

Ans. 



and -J- the smaller. Then 3(-4— 100 )=2(x— 100). Solve. 



l-^b-\-c l+b-]-c l-\-b-\-c' 

12. Two numbers have to each other a ratio of 3 to 4. 
If 100 be subtracted from each the remainders will have a 
ratio of 2 to 3. Find the numbers. (L<et a; = larger number 

-J- the smaller. Then 3^-^ 

13. A huckster sold pears and apples, the pears selling 
10 cents per peck more than the apples; 8 pecks of pears 
bringing him as much as 10 pecks of apples. What was 
the price per peck of each? 

14. After 6 o'clock when will the hour and minute hands 
of a clock first be 1 Vgether? 

Explanation. — The minute hand gains 11 spaces 
(hour spaces") in making the entire cif-cuit of the dial, 
hence it takes it one hour to gain these 11 spaces; it will 
therefore require 1/11 hour to gain 1 space and i2/ii hour to 
gain 12 spaces, or a complete circuit. It is plain then, that 



8 



ALGEBRA. 

if 1 i/ii hours be multiplied bj the hour past 12 o'clock the 
result will be the time the hour and minute hands are in 
conjunction. I^et a;=the time; then a;=6Xl Vn hours = 
6 6/ii hours, or 6 hours 32 ^/n minutes. 

15. At what time after 3 o'clock will the hour and 
minute hands of a watch be at a right angle to each other? 

Suggestion. — They were together at 3 s/n hours; they 
are now 15 minutes apart, i. e., the minute hand has gained 
three spaces, which has required 3/ii hour; this added to 
3 3/ii hours is 3 ^/n hours, or 3 hours 32 S/u minutes. 

16. After 4 o'clock when will the hour and minute 

hands of a clock first be together? 1^ 

17. After 4 o'clock at what time will they be at right 

angles to each other? 

18. The sum of two numbers is 28; their difference is 
12. What are the numbers? 

19. A bricklayer earned $4 per day for building a wall, 
working 40 days and paying $6 per week for his board. At 
the end of the time he had saved $125 5/7 . How many days 
was he engaged? 

20. A bicyclist left Chicago at 8 A. M., riding westward 
at the rate of 6 miles per hour, and was overtaken by a 
second rider who had started two hours later and had ridden 
8 miles per hour. At what distance west of Chicago did 
the second rider overtake the first? 

21. A man spends each year one-fourth of the money 
he has in bank, but adds to his deposit account his monthly 
earnings of $100. Suppose that at the beginning of the 
fifth year his balance in bank is $8000, how much had he 
in bank at the beginning of the first year? 



ALGEBRA. 

SIMUI^TANEiOUS EQUATIONS. 

TWO OR MORE UNKNOWN QUANTITIES. 

In Simultaneous equations the same unknown 
quantity has the same value in each of the two or more 
equations expressing different relations between the un- 
known quantities. 

A derived equation is one formed by combining two 
or more primary equations. 

An independent equation is one which cannot be de- 
rived from or reduced to the form of another, as 2a;-|-a=8, 
and 2a-\-x=l2j are independent equations. 

An indeterminate equation is one in which the un- 
known quantity may have an unlimited number of values, 
as x-\-a=16. 

In order to reduce simultaneous equations to the form 
of a derived equation from which the values of the un- 
known quantities may be obtained, we employ the process 
of elimination. 

There are three modes of eliminating one or more un- 
known terms from simultaneous equations — by addition or 
subtraction; by comparison, and by substitution. The first 
and third modes are most frequently used. 

CASK 1 — BY ADDITION OR SUBTRACTION. 

PrincipIvE). — Coefficients of like quantities must be 
equal. 

Rule.— (Axiom 2). I. Equalize the coefficiei]ft:s 
of the quantity to be eliminated by multiplication or 
division. 

II.— If the signs of the quantity to be eliminated are 
tlie same^ subtract the derived equations; if the signs 
are unlike, add the derived equations. 

10 



AliGEBBA. 

MODKI, OPKRATION. 

From the simultaneous equations in first example, find 
the values of x and y. 

1. x-\-2y=16 (1) 

2X+ y=U (2) 

2x^\y=Z2. (3) derived from (l) 

2a;4- y=\A (2) subtract (eliminating a?) 

3y=18 (4) divide by 3 

y= 6 (5) 

4x+2y=28 (6) from (2) 

x-{-2y=16 (1) subtract 

3a; =12 (7) divide by 3 

X = 4 (8) ^ 

Verify in 1st. x-{-2y=16 ( 1 ) 

4+12= ? 

2. Find the value of x and y in 2x-\-Zy=» 57 ( 1) 

3a;— Sjj/=— 39 (2) 

10x-\-lSy~ 285 derived from (1) 
9x—\Syz= — 117 derived from (2) 
By addition 19x=i68 
Dividing by 19 a;=8i6/i9 

Find the value of ^. 
x y 

3. -2-2= -3 <!)• 

2a; Sy 
-3-+6=23 (2). 

Ans. a;=14 2/9 , y—2^ "ij^ . 

4. 6a;— 8jj/= — 21 (1) 

8a;+6j)/= 47 (2) 

Find X and y and verify. 

CASE 2. — BY COMPARISON. 

Axiom. — Equals of the same thing are equal to each 
other. 

11 



AI^GEBKA. 

Kule. — Find the algebraic value of the same unknown 
3[uantity in each equation; form a derived equation of these 
values and reduce. 

EXAMPI.ES. 

1. 2x-f3j/=23 (1) 

2x-^Sy=37 (2) 

Transposing-, 2x=23--3y (3) from 1 

Elence, x= 23-3y (4) 

2 

Transposing, Zx=2>7—5y (5) from 2 

Hence, ;f=37— 5^ (6) 

3 

23— 3jj/ 37— S^/ ( 7 ) from 4 and 6 

Comparing, — t^ — = — ^ — 

Clearing of fraction, 69— 9;/=74— 10y....(8) transpose, y=5 
Find X in same manner. 

2. 4x—2y=l2 (1) 

4y—2x=24 (2) 

Required x and y, 

Zx 

3. -j-+y=ie (1) 

x+^=l5y2 (2) 

Find X and y . 

4. 4x^2y= 52 (1) 

2x—3y——22 (2) Ans. a;=7, jj'=12. 

Solve the above also by addition or subtraction. 

5. 5s—3v-\-2w=2S ( 1 ) 

35+2z/-4ze/=l5 (2) 

Zv-\-Aw—s=2A (3) 

6. 2z+Sy—2x=4 ( 1 ) 

Az—Zy-\-2x=9 (2) 

Sz-\-ey—2x=lS (3 ) 



12 



ALGEBRA. 

7. 2z-{-4y—3:v=22 ( 1 ) 

4z—2y+5^=18 (2) 

6z-\-7y — ;r=63 (3) Ans. ;r==4, y=7t z=3, 

8. 3;r— 5jj/+72'=58 (1) 

2y-{-Az—x=60 (2) 

7z—2>x—6y=0 (3) Ans. x=S, y=\0, z—\2. 

2>x Sy 6z 

y—x+z=l& (2) 

V X z 

4"'~'3+6~^ ^^^ ^^^' ^=9, jj/=12, 2'=1S 

10. 2x+3y-^4z=3 (1) 

7x-\-9yi-14z=10... (2) ^ 

X 

-^-\-6y-{-3z=3 (3) Ans. x=}4, y—Vi, z—%. 

11. x^3y—3z=6 (1) 

5y—17x-{-4z=:73 ( 2 ) 

16:ir—4>/-i- 17^=83 (3) Ans. xz=0, y=% z=7. 

CASE 3.— Sy substitution. 
Kule. — Find the value of an unknown quantity in an 
equation and substitute it for the same quantity in another, 
then reduce. 

1. Find ;r and j)/: 

4x-]-2y—52 (1) 

2x-\-Zy=38 (2) 

Model solution: 

4^+2j=S2 (1) 

2^+3^=38 (2) 

4;ir=52— 2^^ .(3, from 1) 

Hence, x= S3-—2y (4) 

4 

52—2y -\-3y=38 (5) Substituting in (2) 

2 

13 



ALGEBRA. 

"^FraJftL^s! } 52-2^+6^=76 (6) 

Transposing, — 2j|/+6jj/=76— 52 (7) 

Combining-. 4j)/=24 (8) 

Hence, y= 6 Ans. substitute in (1) and 

4;tr+12=S^ (9) 

Transposing, 4;ir =52 —12=40 (10) 

Reducing-, X = 10 Ans. (11) prove in (2) 

20 -}-18 = ? 

2. 4^— 2:v=12 (1) 

Ay —2x=lA (2) Ans. ;ir=8, j)/=10. 

3. 5:r— 3j/=10 (1) 

Sy —Zx—2^ (2) Ans. ^=8,^=10. 

4. 4^+8^= 4 (1) 

9^ — 4jj/ = 2 (2) Ans. x= ^jw, y= '^/^z 

5. 2;ir2_^3>' =300 (1) 

ic2— j^=140 (2) Ans. ic=12, j=4. 

6. 2x -\-2>y-\-Az— 61 (1) 

2x — y-\-Zz= 27 (2) 

X +4ji/— 2"= — 26 (3) 

Find X and J/. 

7. a; -{- y-\- v-\- z—U (1) 

2x -\-3v—2z=z 6 (2) 

— ic— 2y +42'=12 (3) 

3x-\-Ay—2v =10 (4) 

Find values of each letter. 

Solve the above by the other two methods also. 

1. A vessel has 3 taps. The first alone can empty it 
in 1}4 hours; the second in 2 hours; the third in 2)4 hours. 
If all flow at the same time, in what time can they empty 
the vessel? Ans. |f hours. 

2. A farmer bought 160 acres of land for $6,800, pay- 
ing $40 per acre for part, and $50 per acre for the balance. 
How many acres did he buy at these prices. 

Ans. 120 acres at $40, and 40 acres at $50. 

14 



ALGEBRA. 

3. A number is composed of two digits, whose sum in- 
creased by 9 equals 18. If the second be taken from twice 
the first the remainder will be zero. What is the number? 

Ans. 36. 
I^et a; =the number of tens. 
I^et y=th.e number of units. 
10 a;-|-jj/=required number. 
x-^y-\- 9=18 (1) first condition. 

2x — jj/= (2) second condition. 

x-\-y=zl8— 9=9 (3) 



Add. 
2x—y= (2) 



3a; =9 (4) Divide, 

cc = 3 (5) Substitute in (2) 

6 — jj/= (6) Transpose. * 

6 =:y (7) 

Substitute values in third statement: 

10x-\-y=z30-\-6=26. Answer. 

4. A number is composed of two digits. The value of 
the digits in the ten's place is one-half of that in the unit's 
place. The sum of the digits is 12. What is the number? 

Answer 48. 

5. A number is composed of three digits. The ratio 
of the first to the third is 1 to 4. The value of the second 
digit equals twice the value of the first. The sum of the 
digits is 14. Find the number. Answer 248. 

6. Two persons own n dollars worth of property. The 
first owns a times as much as the second. How much does 
each own? 

^ an n 

Ans. First "ttt dollars. Second — tt dollars. 

7. Divide a dollars among three persons, so that the 

first shall be h times as much as the second, and second c 

times as much as the third. 

^ ahc ' ac 

Ans. First iqi^q:^^. Second jq:^^. 



Third q:^:^-^ dollars. 



IS 



ALOEBBA. 

8. Find two numbers, such that one-half the jRrst ad- 
ded to one-third the second will equal five; and the differ- 
ence between three-fourths the first and two-ninths the 
second will equal one. Ans. x=4, jj/=9. 

9. Find two numbers whose difference is 11 and whose 
sum is 25. Ans. 18 and 7. 

10. Two men, C and D, own together 240 acres of land. 
If C sell D 70 acres each will have the same number of 
acres. How much land has each? 

Ans. C 190 acres, D SO acres. 

11. If 1 be added to the numerator of a fraction its 
value is unity; and if 2 be subtracted from the denomi- 
nator its value is IX • What is the fraction? Ans. f. 

12. Find two numbers such that one-half the greater 
added to one-third the less is 8; and if two-thirds the less 
be subtracted from four-fifths the greater the remainder is 
2. 

13. The difference between the ages of two men is 17 
years; eight years ago the elder was twice as old as the 
younger. How old is each? 

14. A house and lot cost $9,500, and the cost of the lot 
was -^ the cost of the house. Find the cost of each. 

15. A and B have together $51,000. A invests one- 
fourth of his share in business, and B donates one-third of 
his share to an educational institution, and each has then 
the same sum remaining. What sum had each at first? 

16. Find two numbers whose difference is 16, and the 
quotient of the greater divided by the less is 5. 

17. The sum of two numbers is a, and the greater is n 

times the less. What are the numbers? 

an - ^ 
Ans. : r v and 



n-\-l n-^V 

16 



ALGEBRA. 

18. I bought apples at 2 cents and oranges at 3 cents 
each, and spent $3.00. If I had bought as many apples as 
oranges, and as many oranges as apples, I would have 
spent 13.50. How many of each did I purchase? 

19. A huckster bought some apples at 15 cents per 
dozen and some at 20 cents per dozen, paying $2.00 for the 
whole. He retailed them at 3 for 5 cents and gained $1.45. 
How many of each kind did he buy? 

20. If A gave B $100 he would have as much money as 
B had at first. If B gave A $100 he would have half as 
much as A then has. How much has each? 

INVOI.UTION. 

Involution is the process of finding any given power of 
a quantity. ^ 

The sign of Involution is the Exponent. 

The Power is the product obtained from using the 
Quantity as many times as is indicated by the Exponent. 

Thus, 16=4X4, = second power of 4. 

The name of a Power is determined by the number of 
times the quantity is used as a factor. Hence, involution 
is a brief method of multiplying equal factors. 

Principles. — (1) All powers of a positive quantity 
are positive. 

(2) Even powers of a negative quantity are Positive 
and odd powers Negative. 

(3) The Exponent of any power of a Quantity is equal 
to the Exponent of the quantity multiplied by the Ex- 
ponent of the Power. 

Thus, (2x^)3=8x12^6. 

Rule.— Raise the Numeral Coefiacient, if there is any, 
to the power indicated by the sign. Annex each literal, 
factor, multiplying its exponent by the sign of the power, 
and prefix the proper sign. 

17 



{ 



ALGEBRA. 

EXAMPI^ES. 

Find the values of 
1. (4a;2y)3; (2x3^)4. 
Model solution: 

1. First part: {4x^ y^)9=4K y^K y^^^=64x^y^ 
Second part: 

( 2X3 y2 )4=24.X3^4 jj/2x4^16a;12 y . 

2. (-3a3^3)4. (_2a2,^3)6. 

3. (2a2^3^3)5; (_2a2^3^8)5. 

4. {— 4^2x4^)4; (4a2a;4jj/2)4. 

, f^^i^V. / 3x3y^. . 
^' V3a3^2; , V la'^bU^d) ' 

^' V5^3273/ ' V Sxn 62 / • 

2ii a3tt dtt c^ 2tt amS ^mn 



Ans. 



5ti flra ^211 ^Sn » 3m a;am ^2m' 



6 6»>i 

7. Find the ??2th power of -r. Ans. r^. 

8. Find the «th power of -^^. Ans. ^„ ^^^^ . 

9. Find the «th power of (a4-6)2. Ans. {a-^d)^a , 
10. Find the wth power of {x — z)^ . Ans. {x — z)^*^ . 

THE BINOMIAI, THEOREM. 

This is a method of raising Binomial quantities to any 
power, however high, without performing the manifold 
multiplications which would otherwise be necessary. 

Thorough practice upon this Theorem is advised. The 
analysis of the expansions of (x+j)"* and {x—y)^, whose 
values are respectively: 

x^+5x^y+10x^ y +10x2 j/3+Sxy +j/^ and 
x^ — Sx4jj/+10x3_j/2 — 10x2 jj/3_|_5ay,4__y5, Andwill develop" 
the following: 

Principles. — (1) The number of terms in the Power 
is numerically one more than the IJxponent sign (index) 
of the Power. 

18 



ALGEBRA. 

(2) Both letters are found in all the terms except the 
first and last. 

( 3 ) The Exponents of the first and last terms is the 
same as the Exponent of the Power, 

(4) The Exponent of the first letter decreases, and 
that of the following letter increases by 1 from left to right 

(5) The Coefficients of the first and last terms is 1. 
The Coefficient of the second term is equal to the Ex- 
ponent of the Power. 

(6) The Coefficient of any term multiplied by the Ex- 
ponent of its leading letter and the product divided by tha 
number, from the left, of that term, will produce the 
Coefficient of the next term. 

(7) If both terms of a Binomial are P^itive, the 
signs of all the terms will be positive. 

(8) If the second term is Negative, all the odd terms 
from the left will be Positive, and all the even terms will 
be Negative. 

The application of this Theorem is not confined to 
Binomials, but by using substitute terms, it may be ap- 
plied to other Polynomials. Thus: Expand {a-\-d-{-c-\-d)*. 
Substitute x for {a-\-d), and jj/ for {c-\-d), and we then have 
(x-{-y)^—x'^-\-4x^ y-{-6x^ y^-{-4xy^-\-yK For these terms re- 
store {a-{-d) for X, and {c-\-d) for j/, and the result would be 
{a+dy-\-A {a-\-d)^ {c-^d)-\-6 (a-\-d)^ (^+0^)2+4 (a+d) Cc-\-dy-\- 
(^c-\-dy. This can be still further reduced by expanding 
the terms in parenthesis. 

ExAMPlvES. 
Expand: 

1. (a+dY; {a^by. 

2. (x+l)3; (x--l)3. 

3. (1+^)4; {1-by. 

4. {b+lcY; (b-'lcy, 

19 



ALGEBRA. 

5. (3a+2<^)4; (Za—2by. 

6. (3a;— 3j|/)«; {Zx\-2>y)^, 

7. (x—y~\-ay; {x-\-y—a)^. 

8. {a-\-b-{-c—dy', {a—b^-c+dy, 

9. (a+d)— (^— 0^)3; {a-b-\-c—dy. 

"• (2+3)' (2-3)- 

Ans. to last, -g — "lf'+~6~ — ^27* 



a; 3 a;2jj, ^y^s ^3 



EVOI^UTION. 

Evolution is the process of extracting- any required 
root of a given quantity. 

The root required is indicated by the Radical Sign \/ . 
The square root has no index in the sign; any other root 
is indicated by an index placed within the sign. Thus, ^, 
signijB.es the third or cube root. 

The root may also be indicated by a fractional exponent, 

the denominator of which shows the root to be extracted, 

and the numerator the power of the quantity. Thus, 
(16a )V4 signifies the fourth root of the square or second 



4/ 

power of 16a, or 1/ 256a^ 

Principles.— (1) An odd root of a quantity has the 
same sign as the quantity. 

(2) An even root of a Positive Quantity is either 
Positive or Negative. It will have the double sign, ± . 

(3) An indicated even root of a Negative quantity is 
imaginary. (There can be no even root of a negative 
quantity, for the square of -\-a is+^'> and the square of — a 
is 4-^2; hence, -[/ — a^ is neither {-\-a nor — a). 

Rule. — Extract the required root of the Numeral Co- 
e fificient, if there be any; divide the Exponent of each let 
er b y the index of the root, and prefix the proper sig"n. 

20 



ALGEBRA. 

EXAMPI,ES. 

Reduce the following Radicals to their simplest form: 

1. i/a^ ^49a^*c\ 
Model solution: 

l/49a2/^V« = i/49X ]/a^l>*c^. 
1/49=7 i/a^¥^=ad^c^ obtained by dividing the Ex- 
ponents 2, 4, 6, of the letters by 2, the index (2) of the root. 
Hence the root of the quantity is 7a^ c^. 

2. t/Sad^cK Answer. 2^ g/a^. 

3. i/l6a;>8. ^t4a^^d», 

4- 1/ — 160:2 y4. l/—e4a^d». Ans. 4x^1/=!. 4a*2^^ 

S. (81a<^2)^. (— 27a«^9)J^. ^ 

The root of a fractional quantity is found by extracting 

the required root of the numerator and denominator sep- 
arately. Thus: l/^, Ans. ±-5^. 






J/— 64a9/^6 

9. (— 125a8/^«^»)H. (144a<x8)^. 
,0. (-^la».«.)>,. jf2^}>^ 



21 



OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

FOURTH PAPER. 

1. What is an equation? An equation of the first de- 
gree? 

2. What is a quadratic equation? What is meant by 
"transforming an equation?" 

3. How would you clear an equation of fractions? 

a;-f9 Sx 2a; + 8 

4. Clear of fractions — 4" +"5" — 4— — ^ — • 

2a;— 7 Sx— 6 ^ ^, 

5. Clear — 3 — — — 4 — = —4 6/7. 

6. What is transposition? Why is transposition ever 
necessary? 

7. How find the value of an unknown quantity in a 
simple equation? How prove its correctness. 

8. When there are three unknown terms what is the 
least number of equations there may be? 

9. What is elimination? Its purpose? 

10. What is substitution? 

11. Find, by substitution, the values of the unknown 
quantities in the following: 

1. 3x-\-2y=U (1). 
Sx—3y=29 (2). 

2. 2x-{-y-\-2z=40 (1). 

x—2y—2z——24 (2). 

—Sx+4y—z= — 9 (3). 

12. A number is composed of three digits whose sum is 
9. The first digit is three-fourths of the third, if 99 be ad- 
ded to the number the order of digits will be reversed. 
What is the number? 

13. What is Involution? Of what is it a brief mode? 

14. What is the diff'erence between index and power? 

15. How raise a monomial to a required power? 

16. What is meant by the **Binomial Theorem?" 

17. How determine the number of terms in the power 
of a Binomial? 

18. How determine the signs of the terms? 

19. How find the coefiicient of any term after the 
second? 

20. Expand (2*— 3j|/)«. Expand (a^— 1)7. 

22 



FIRST GRADE-NUMBER FIVE. 



Teachers' Home Series 



,-^^^-fi'j'i 



I. B. McKENNA. H. A.. II. D.. 

President and Dirootov. 



Quincy School of Correspondence^ 
Quincy, Illinois. 



COPYRIGHT 
QUINCY BUSINESS COLLEGE- 

1902. 




BOTANY. 

(fifth papier.) 
mui,tipi,icati0n of pi, ants. 

Vegetative Multiplication.— Among the very low- 
est plants no special organs of reproduction are developed, 
new individuals being produced merely by a breaking up 
of the parent body. liven in higher plants which have 
special reproductive organs, this method obtains. For in- 
stance, pieces of Begonia leaves may be used to start new 
plants ; slips from house plants may be planted and new 
individuals produced. This is vegetative reproduction. 

Nurserymen make use of such methods to a very 
large extent in propagating trees, vines, etc., etc. Any 
healthy twig bearing one or more buds (scion) may be 
cut from the parent stem and inserted and fastened by 
means of wax in the split end of a closely related species. 
Union will take place between the parts and the new will 
become a part of the old. This is called grafting. If the 
scion is placed in. the ground to strike root it is called a 
slip or cutting. In nature living branches often snap 
off and are carried by wind or water and, if deposited in a 
suitable place, take root and spring into new individuals. 
This is especially true of willows and cottonwoods. 

The common Bladderwort, a floating water plant, 
breaks up into parts and each part drifts by itself, a new 
individual. I^eaves of lake-cress have been known to break 
off and drop into the mud or water and after drifting for 
a while strike root. Many water plants produce fleshy 
buds which float or sink to the bottom and after passing 
the winter in the mud expand, rise, and float again and 
produce new individuals, 

3 



BOTANY. 

The black raspberry often bends its stems down so 
that their tips touch the ground and take root, and from 
these parts new stems spring up. Such stems are called 
stolons or layers. A short stolon is sometimes called an 
offset. Oaks, ashes, poplars, willows, elms, locusts, milk- 
weeds, thistles and many other plants send up aerial stems, 
or suckers, from underground stems. These stems 
develop roots of their own and when the underground 
stems connecting them with the parent plant die they be- 
come independent individuals. 

Some plants like the strawberry and some kinds of 
buttercups send out long leafless stems (runners) which^ 
creep along the ground and eventually strike root at the 
tips and develop a bunch of leaves. If the connecting 
runners die or are cut new individuals result. The com- 
mon witchgrass sends extensive subterranean stems 
(creepers) in every direction, rooting and sprouting at 
every joint, so that in a short time a single individual can 
spread over a large area. 

The common potato develops in the ground enlarged 
stems or tubers which by the dying off of the connecting 
parts at the end of the season become entirely separate. 
Next season each tuber sends up a number of sprouts pro- 
ducing thus as many new individuals as there are tubers. 

Spore Reproduction. — Most plants develop special 
reproductive bodies' called spores, which germinate and 
produce new individuals. This is called spore repro- 
duction. There are two kinds of spores, one kind formed 
by the dividing of certain organs in the parent; the other 
by the union of two special bodies of the parent. The first 
kind may be called simply spores, and the second kind 
egg-spores, or oospores. The two special bodies which 
unite to form an egg-spore are called gametes. In most of 

4 



BOTANY. 

the lower forms of plants like the algae, both spores and 
eggs are conspicuous. In the mosses and ferns the spores 
are prominent and abundant but the egg is concealed; in 
seed-plants certain spores (pollen grains) are conspicuous 
but the eggs are concealed in the embryo sacs within the 
ovules. Seeds are neither spores nor egg-spores, but peculiar 
reproductive bodies produced by the development of the 
egg-spores into an embryo plant. 

In order to get a good idea of spore-reproduction we 
will begin with the lowest and simplest forms of plants 
and proceed to the higher and more complex forms. By so 
doing we will also get a good idea of the classification of 
the plant kingdom and characteristics of the main divisions. 
The plant kingdom may be divided into four great groups. 

(1) Thallopbytes. — This term means "thallus 
plants ," and includes many of the simplest forms of plants 
known as Algse and Fungi, the former represented by the 
green thread-like growths in fresh water and the sea-weeds, 
the latter by the moulds, mushrooms, rust, etc. 

(2) Bryophytes.— The "moss plants" include the 
common mosses, and the liverworts, common in our green 
houses, where they are known as "Iceland mosses." 

( 3 ) Pteridophytes.— This term means "fern plants," 
but the group includes, besides the ferns, the "horse-tails" 
or "scouring rushes," and the "club-mosses." 

(4) Sperniatophytes.— This means "seed plants" 
and includes the cone-bearing plants, endogens and exo- 
gens, in fact all the plants commonly known as "flower- 
ing plants." Formerly the seed-bearing plants were known 
as phanerogamia ( f an'-e-ro-ga'-mi-a) from two Greek 
words meaning "visible" and "marriage," that is, having 
visible flowers with stamens and pistils. The other three 
groups were known as cryptoganiia ( krip'-to-ga'-mi-a ) 

5 



BOTANY. 

meaning * 'concealed marriage", that is, without visible 
flowers. 

THAI,I,OPHYTES. 

The Thallophytes occur everywhere and are of special 
interest because they include the simplest forms of plants. 
The word "thallus" refers to the nutritive body of the 
plant. It is composed of cells of various shapes but not 
elaborated into complex tissues. There is no epidermis, 
stomata or fibrovascular system developed nor is there 
any differentiation into leaves, stems and roots, although 
certain marine forms are differentiated into regions resem- 
bling these structures. The thallus body is not a distinc- 
tive mark of this group for some of the Bryophytes have 
thallus bodies. 

The Bryophytes, which have thallus bodies, however, 
are easily distinguished from the Thallophytes by the fact 
that their reproductive organs are much more complex. 

The Thallophytes are separated into two great divis- 
ions, the Algse, which contain chlorophyll, and the Fungi, 
which do not. The presence of chlorophyll means that the 
plant can make its own food, — can live independent of other 
plants. The algse, therefore, are independent Thallo- 
phytes. The Fungi, on the other hand, contain no chloro- 
phyll, cannot make their own food, and hence must obtain 
it already manufactured from other plants and animals. 

Algae. — There are four subdivisions of the Algag, as 
follows: (1) Cyanophyceae, or "Blue-green Algae"; 
(2) Chloropliycese, or "Green Algas"; (3) Phseo- 
phycese, or "Brown Algae"; and (4) Rhodopliycese, 
or "Red Algae." The plant body may consist of a single 
cell, a string of cells or thread, a flat plate of cells, or a 
mass of cells. The plant body reproduces itself either by 
cell division or by spores. 



BOTAISY. 

Spores are formed in two ways,— asexiially and sex- 
ually. The two kinds of spores are alike in their power 
to produce a new individual but unlike in origin. The 
asexual spores are formed by the subdivision of a special 
cell (mother cell) into a variable number of new cells or 
spores. If the mother cell is different from the other cells 
of the plant body it is called a sporangium, or "spore 
vessel." The sporangium usually opens and lets the 
spores escape. Among the Algse the asexual spores are 
provided with minute hair-like processes or cilia, so that 
they can swim through the water. These swimming 
asexual spores are often called swarm spores, or zoo - 
spores. 

Sexual spores are formed by the fusion of two cells. 
The act of fusing is called the sexual process, and the 
two special cells which fuse are known as gametes. The 
gametes are not spores and have not the power of produc- 
ing new individuals, but the sexual spore formed by their 
union has this power. 

In some of the Algae the gametes are alike. Spirogyra, 
for instance, consists of strings of cells, all exactly alike. 
During the growing season, the plant reproduces by vege- 
tative multiplication, but as winter approaches, the threads 
which lie alongside each other begin to unite, cell by cellj 
Adjacent cells send out little projections toward each other. 
These fuse and form a communicating tube through which 
the protoplasm of one cell flows into the other cell and 
unites with its contents to form a rounded thick-walled 
zygospore, or "yoke spore." The process of union is 
called conjugation, and plants having this method of 
reproduction are often called Conjugates or Zygopliytes. 

In other Algae the gametes are very unlike. Vauch- 
eria, for instance, consists of green branching threads, 

7 



BOTANY. 

not divided into cells by cross partitions. As winter ap- 
proaches these threads send out little branches of two 
kinds. One, the oog'oniuiu, is an oval-shaped body sepa- 
rated from the main thread by a partition. The enclosed 
protoplasm is called an oosphere, or egg. The other, 
the antberidium, is a slender recurved body, with the 
end separated from the basal portion by a partition. The 
contents of the end cell break up into numerous tiny bod- 
ies, spermatozoids, with hair-like lashes for swimming. 
The spermatozoids escape into the water and swim about 
for a while and soon find their way to the oogonia, enter 
and fuse with the oospere and produce an oospore or **egg 
spore." The act of fusing is called fertilization. Thall- 
ophytes having this kind of reproduction are called 
Oophytes. 

The groups Zygophytes and Oophytes include mem- 
bers of both the Algal and Fungal divisions. 

Fungi. — The classification of the Fungi is in a state 

of confusion on account of lack of knowledge. Four pretty 
well defined groups have been made out. They are (1) 
Phycomycetes, or "Alga-Fungi," (2) Asconiycetes, 
or "Ascus-Fungi," (3) Aecidiomycetes, or "Aecidium- 
Fungi," (4) Basidiomycetes, or "Basidium-Fungi." 

The Phycomycetes include the * 'water-moulds" (Sap- 
rolegnia) growing upon dead animals and plants in the 
water, the common moulds (Mucor) growing upon decayed 
animal and vegetable matter, and the * 'downy mildews" 
(Peronospora) parasitic upon seed plants as hosts. In 
this group asexual spores are produced in sporangia by the 
enlargement of special end cells and the breaking up of 
the protoplasm within into tiny spores, ciliated in the 
''water-moulds," and light and suitab;le to be wind-borne 

8 



BOTAl^Y. 

in the common moulds and mildews. Sexual spores are 
also produced by means of oog-onia and antheridia in the 
"water-moulds" and the "downy mildews" and by a pro- 
cess of conjugation in Mucor. 

The Ascomycetes include the common mildews para- 
sitic upon many seed plants, the common blue mould ( Pen- 
icillium) found on bread, fruit, etc.; the truffle-fungi, upon 
whose subterranean mycelia, the fruiting portions, 
"truffles," are formed; the black-fungi, which form the 
diseases known as "black-knot" of the plum and cherry, 
the "ergot" of rye, and many black wart-like growths, 
upon the bark of trees; "peach curl," cup-fungi and the 
edible morels. The mildews and Penicillium produce 
asexual spores (conidia) in strings upon brai|phing aerial 
hyphae. By some obscure sexual process the mildews pro- 
duce minute spherical ascocarps, containing several little 
sacs (asci) each one of which contain a number of spores 
( ascospores.) In the cup fungi the ascocarp is like a cup 
or disc which holds the asci on the inner side. In the 
morels the ascocarp is a large pear-shaped body elevated on 
a short stalk and having a reticulated surface the depres- 
sions of which are lined with asci containing ascospores. 

Aecidiomycetes.— To this class belong the "rusts" 
and "smuts." Many of the rusts have a very complicated 
life history producing several different kinds of asexual 
spores. The wheat rust is best known. It produces a 
mycelium within the stem of the wheat and during the 
summer sends out sporophores which burst through the 
epidermis and develop small one-celled brownish spores 
which give to the wheat the streaked, rusty appearance. 
These spores are called the uredospores, or suininer 
spores. In the autumn this same mycelium develops on 
the stubble elongated, two-celled, thick-walled black spores 



BOTANY. 

called teleutospores or "winter-spores." In the spring- 
following-, these winterspores germinate and produce little 
rounded spores (sporidia) which, if tliey fall upon a bar- 
berry leaf develop a mycelium within the leaf. This 
myceliCim produces strings of conidia massed together in 
a cup (cluster-cup, or aecidium) immersed in the tis- 
sues of the leaf and opening on the under surface of the 
leaf. These conidia or aecidiospores, again develop a 
mycelium on the wheat. If there is no barberry at hand 
the cluster-cup stage may be omitted, the sporidia devel- 
oping a mycelium in the wheat directly. 

The "smuts" are common on cereals producing in the 
heads of oats, barley, wheat and corn the disease called 
smut. 

Basidiomycetes. — To this group belong all the 
mushrooms, toadstools and puffballs. These are not para- 
sitic like the members of the preceding group but live upon 
decayed animal and vegetable matter, which they absorb 
by an elaborate system of mycelial threads. In the typical 
mushrooms there is a stalk-like portion, or stipe, support- 
ing an expanded umbrella-shaped top, or pileus. From 
the under surface of the pileus there hang thin radiating 
plates (gills). Each gill is a mass of interwoven threads 
or hyphae whose tips turn toward the surface and form a 
compact layer of end cells. These end cells, forming the 
surface of the gill are club-shaped and are called basidia. 
From the broad end of each basidium two or four delicate 
branches arise, each bearing a minute spore. These spores 
are called basidiospores, and when ripe shower down from 
the gills, germinate, and produce new mycelia. 

The "pore-fungi" have pore-like depressions instead of 
gills, as in the common bracket-fungus (PolyporuS) form- 
ing hard ear-like growths on tree trunks and stumps. 

10 



BOTANY. 

The pufPballs produce globular bodies within which the 
spores develop and are liberated when ripe. 

Licliens. — A very interesting- thallophyte is the lichen 
which forms various colored splotches on the tree trunks 
generally of a greenish-gray. They are not single plants 
but consist of a fungus and an alga living together so 
intimately as to appear like a single plant. This habit of 
living together is called symbiosis. It is thought that the 
two individuals are mutually helpful, the alga manufactur- 
ing food for the fungus and the fungus providing protec- 
tion, and water containing food materials. At certain 
times cup-shaped bodies (apotliecia) with brown or black 
lining, occur on the surface of the lichen. This lining 
consists of delicate sacs fitted with spores. The sacs are 
asci and the apothecia are ascocarps, so that the lichen 
should probably be classified as an ascomycete. 

BRYOPIIYTES. 

The Bryophytes include the "true mosses" and the 
"hepatic mosses", or "liverworts." In most of the hepatic 
mosses the plant body is either a true thallus or is a thal- 
loid structure; in the true mosses, however, and some of the 
hepatic mosses, there is a differentiation into stem and 
leaf. No true roots are found but in place of them there 
are structures resembling root-hairs, called rhizoids^ con- 
sisting of single cells or rows of cells. These are attached 
to the under surface of the thallus, or to the side of the 
stem, and serve to support and fix the plant, as well as to 
absorb nutritious substances for its sustenance. The tissues 
are much more highly developed than in the preceding 
divisions; the epidermis is in many cases well defined and 
true stomata are found. The greater part of the plant 
body is in most cases composed of a well-developed paren- 
chyma composed of thin-walled cells which are compacted 

11 



BOTANY. 

into a true tissue. There is also, a slight indication of the 
development of the fibro-vascular system in the elongated 
bundles of cells which occur in the leaf veins and the axial 
portions of the stems of some species. 

The life history of a common moss is complicated and 
interesting. Starting with the asexual spore we find, if it 
has fallen in a favorable location, that by germinating it 
produces a branching filamentous growth (protonema) 
resembling some of the Green Algae. It is prostrate and 
does not resemble the ordinary moss plant at all. Soon it 
develops buds which lengthen into erect leafy stalks. These 
are the ordinary leafy moss plants. At the top of these 
stalks are produced the sexual organs. One stalk produces 
small flask-shaped archegonia, composed of many cells 
and containing within the swollen base (venter) a single 
large cell {egg). Another stalk produces small club- 
shaped organs (antheridia), filled with minute ciliated 
bodies (spermatozoids). When the ripe antheridium be- 
comes wet it bursts and the spermatozoids escape, swim 
around actively in the moisture, and some of them find 
their way to the archegonia. Wintering the neck of an 
archegonium they make their way to the egg in the venter, 
fuse with it and produce an oospore. The oospore, 
instead of remaining in a resting state, like the oospore of 
Vancheria, germinates immediately. The lower portion 
pushes into the top of the stalk and absorbs nourishment 
from the moss plant. The upper part pushes its way up- 
ward inside the archegonium and finally tears the arche- 
gonium away from the top of the stalk and bears it aloft 
as the calyptra until it becomes dried up and falls off. 
Finally a rounded receptacle (capsule) is developed, sup- 
ported on a slender stem ( seta) which is continuous with 
the part which has penetrated into the top of the moss 

12 



BOTANY, 

plant (the foot). The capsule becomes filled with asexual 
spores and little spiral bodies (elaters) which twist about 
when they become wet or dry and push out the spores. 
The top of the capsule is covered with a little lid ( oper- 
culum) which falls off at maturity, exposing rows of 
teeth (peristome) surrounding the opening and bending 
inward when moist, so as to retain the spores, and stand- 
ing erect when dry, thus allowing the spores to escape. To 
sum up: (1) the asexual spore produces the protonema ; 
(2) the protonema produces the leafy "moss plants," or 
gametophores ; ( 3) the gametophores develop at their 
summits the gametes (spermatozoids in antheridia, and 
eggs in archegonia); (4) the gametes unite to form an 
oospore ; { 5) the oospore develops into a sporbgonium, 
consisting of foot, seta -and capsule, the capsule being 
filled with asexual spores. 

The L/iverworts, of which Marchantia is a good repre- 
sentative, consist of prostrate, green, ribbon-like plant- 
bodies which develop leafless gametophores of two kinds, 
one bearing archegonia and the other antheridia. In Mar- 
chantia the archegonia are suspended from the under sides 
of umbrella-like receptacles, and the antheridia are im- 
mersed in the upper surfaces of stalked disc-like recep- 
tacles. Spermatozoids from the antheridia fertilize the 
eggs in the archegonia and produce oospores which imme- 
diately develop into bell-shaped sporogonia hanging from 
the under side of the archegonial receptacles. In the 
sporogonia are sexual spores and elaters similar to those 
of true mosses. In many of the I^iverworts little cup- 
shaped organs (cupules) appear on the upper surfaces of 
the plant-body and develop within themselves little short- 
stalked green buds or gemmae, which, when they fall on 
a moist surface, grow into a new thallus. 

13 



BOTANY. 

pteridophytes. 

In the Pteridophytes we get true roots and well devel- 
oped tissues. The epidermis is well marked and contains 
stomata very similar to those of the highest group, the 
Spermatophytes. In many cases trichomes or hairs are 
present. Fibrovascular bundles are strongly developed 
but they are different from those of Undogens and Exogens 
inthatthexylem, or tracheary tissue, is in the center of the 
bundle and completely surrounded by phloem, or sieve 
tissue. This kind of a bundle is often called a concentric 
bundle to distinguish it from the collateral bundles of the 
seed plants. 

In the Thallophy tes and Bryophy tes there are no vessels 
or ducts for carrying the sap elaborated in one part to other 
parts of the plant, but in the Pteridophytes we find these 
vessels for the first time. As the Spermatophytes have 
them also these two sub-kingdoms are often grouped 
together under the head of "vascular plants," while the 
Thallophytes and Bryophytes are called "non-vascular 
plants." 

As the fern is the best and commonest representative of 
this group we can get a good idea of the characteristics of 
the group by studying its life history. An asexual spore 
under favorable conditions produces a small, flat heart- 
shaped thallus (prothallium) similar to the thallus of a 
lyiverwort. This develops on its under surface several 
antheridia and archegonia. Spermatozoids from the anthe- 
ridia fertilize the eggs at the bottom of the archegonia and 
form oospores. One of these oospores immediately develops 
an upright stem with one leaf and this soon grows into the 
ordinary leafy frond of the fern with a subterranean stem 
sending roots down into the soil and numerous fern leaves 
upward. Some of the fern fronds soon begin to develop 

14 



BOTAISTY. 

little greenish brown spots (sori). In the common Aspi- 
dium each sorus consists of an umbrella-shaped or shield- 
shaped indusium covering- over a number of peculiar 
sporangia. Kach sporangium consists of an oval body 
supported on a stalk and having a conspicuous row of heavy- 
walled cells extending over the top and down the back. 
This row of cells is called the annulus, and acts like a 
bent spring. When the sporangium is ripe the tender cells 
on the side not covered by the annulus split apart and the 
annulus straightens slowly, then suddenly springs back to 
its original position thereby throwing the spores with con- 
siderable force. Variations in the amount of moisture 
cause the annulus to recoil again and again so that the 
spores are sure to be all discharged from the sporangium. 
These spores are the asexual spores. 

To sum up the life history: (1) an asexual spore pro- 
duces a gametophyte in the shape of a flat, heart-shaped 
prothallium; (2) the prothallium develops gametes ( sperma- 
tozoids in antheridia,and eggs in archegonia); ( 3 ) an oospore 
is produced by the union of a spermatosjoid with an egg ; 
(4) the oospore develops the leafy frond or sporopliyll 
(spore-leaf) which is the foliacous part of the common 
fern ; (5) the sporophyll produces sori consisting of groups 
of sporangia filled with asexual spores. 

In the maiden-hair fern (Adiantum) and the common 
brake (Pteris) there is no indusium but the sori are pro- 
tected by the inrolled margins of the leaves. In some 
kinds of ferns there are two kinds of fronds, some which 
produce only sporangia and have no chlorophyll and some 
which produce no sporangia but have only chlorophyll 
work to do. Such ferns are the ostrich fern and the sen- 
sitive fern (different species of Onoclea), the moon wort 
( Botrychium) and the adder tongue (Ophioglossum). In 

15 



BOTANY. 

Osmunda certain branches (sporophyll branches) of the 
frond are set aside to produce sporang-ia while the rest of 
the frond does chlorophyll work. 

In most ferns the asexual spores are all alike and when 
they germinate they produce prothallia which in turn pro- 
duce both antheridia and archegonia upon the same indi- 
vidual. There are some kinds of ferns, however, that have 
two kinds of prothallia, a male, producing only antheridia, 
and a female, producing only archegonia. The female 
prothallia are generally larger and better nourished than 
the male prothallia, and where this difference is very pro- 
nounced it has been found that the asexual spores differ 
in size and that the smaller ones produce the male pro- 
thallia. Where this is the case the large spores are called 
megaspores, and the small ones microspores, and the 
plant is called lietorosporous to distinguish it from the 
homosporovis kind where the spores are all of the same 
kind. Where there is a difference in the size of the spores 
the differentiation extends to the sporangia, which are 
designated by the terms megasporaiigia and micro- 
sporangia. The differentiation may extend even to the 
sporophylls, which may be called m.ega — and micro- 
sporophylls. 

Classification.— There are three great groups of 
Pteriodophytes: (1) Filicales (ferns), (2) Equisetales 
(scouring rushes, horsetails), and (3) Lycopodiales 
(club mosses). The Filicales have been described. 

The Equisetales.- -The horsetails have slender and 
conspicuously jointed stems, the joints easily separating. 
The stems are green and longitudinally fluted and contain 
such an abundant deposit of silica that they feel rough to 
the touch, hence they are sometimes called ''scouring 
rushes." At each joint there is a sheath of minute leaves 

16 



BOTANY. 

more or less coalesced. As they contain no chlorophyll 
they may be called scales. In Equisetum arvense two 
kinds of stems arise from subterranean root-stalks, one 
early, without branches but producing spores, the other 
later and branching- profusely but producing no spores. 
The fructification is a compact cluster of peculiar sporo- 
phylls at the top of the fertile stem. Because of the resem- 
blance of this cluster to a pine cone it is called a strobilus, 
IJach sporophyll is shield-like (peltate) or umbrella-shaped 
and bears the sporangia suspended from the under side. 
Only one kind of spore is produced. 

Lycopodiales. — The club mosses have slender branch- 
ing prostrate or erect stems completely clothed with small 
foliage leaves. In the genus L<ycopodium these leaves are 
crowded together to form club-shaped strobili at Uie tops 
of the erect branches and a single sporangium is borne on 
the base of each leaf. The spores are all alike. In the 
genus Selaginella the sporophylls are usually not different 
from the ordinary leaves. Solitary sporangia are found in 
the axils of the leaves but arising from the stem instead of 
from the leaf. There are two kinds of spores. Megaspor- 
angia, each with four megaspores are found in the axils of 
a few of the lower leaves of the strobilus and the more 
numerous microsporangia containing a great many micro- 
spores are found in the upper axils. 

The microspore germinates and produces a male game- 
tophyte so small that it is entirely included within the 
wall of the spore. A single cell represents the prothallium 
while all the rest is an antheridium consisting of a wall of 
a few cells surrounding numerous cells which in the pres- 
ence of water break up into small bicilate spermatozoids. 

The larger megaspores germinate and produce a pro- 
thallium consisting of a mass of nutritive cells almost 
entirely included within the spore wall. The archegonia 
appear upon the exposed portion and thus are accessible to 
the spermatozoids. The oospore formed in the archego- 
nium derives its nourishment while it is germinating and 
producing roots and stem from the nutritive cells of the 
prothallium. 

17 



'"■'m 



BOTANY. 
OUTIillSrE QUIZZES. 

(li^lPTH PAPJ^R.) 

1. What is vegetative reproduction? Give example 
of it. 

2. Define the terms, grafting, cutting, stolon, sucker, 
creeper, runner. 

3. Describe two kinds of spores. Does the pea have 
spores, if so where are they? * 

4. Plants are divided into four great groups. What 
are they? 

5. What is the meaning of Phanerogamia? Crypto- 
gamia? 

6. What are the general characteristics of the Thallo- 
phytes? How is this group sub-divided? 

7. Define the terms sporangium, swarm spore, gamete, 
mother cell, zygospore, conjugation. 

8. How does Vancheria reproduce? What is fertiliza- 
tion? 

9. Distinguish between the Alg^ and Fungi. Men- 
tion some common Fungi. 

10. Give the life history of the wheat rust. 

11. Where are the spores of a mushroom borne? 

12. Why is a lichen of special interest to the botanist? 

13. Give the general characteristics of the "mosses." 

14. Give the life history of a common moss. 

15. How does the life history of a Iviverwort differ from 
that of a common moss? 

16. Give the general characteristics of the Pterido- 
phytes. 

17. Describe and give the life history of the fern. 

18. Define the terms, megaspore, homosporous, sporo- 
phyll, heterosporous. 

19. Describe the common horsetail. 

20. In what respect is the life history of a common 
club-moss more condensed than that of the fern? 

18 



ZOOLOGY. 

(FIFTH PAPKR. ) 
VERTEBRATES. 

All the animals we have studied thus far may be in- 
cluded under the one head, Invertelbrata, to distinguish 
them from the branch we are about to take up, the Ver- 
tebrata. 

The Vertebrates differ from the Invertebrates in hav- 
ing, (1) an internal skeleton or bony support for the mus- 
cles and organs instead of an external support; (2) a trans- 
verse section of the body exhibits two cavities, a dorsal one 
containing the brain and spinal cord, and a ventral one 
containing the heart, lungs, alimentary canal, etc., etc., 
whereas, in the Invertebrates, all organs are contained 
in the same cavity; (3) the main nerve cord is on the 
dorsal side of the body, while in the Invertebrates it is on 
the ventral side connected with the brain on the dorsal 
side of the oesophagus by two commissures; (4) the heart is 
on the ventral side and forces the blood forward, then to 
the dorsal side through arched vessels, and finally back- 
ward through a dorsal aorta. In the invertebrates the 
principal organ or circulation is on the dorsal side and the 
blood is forced forward, then ventrally through arches and 
finally backward on the ventral side. 

The Vertebrates are usually divided according to the 
following scheme: 

BrdLtick. Province. Class. Example. 

'Crochordata Tunicata Sea-Squirts. 

Hemichordata Enteropneusta...Balanog-lossus. 



Vertebrata 

or 
Chordata. 



Ceplialochordata..Leptocardii Amphujxus, Lancelet. 

( Cyclostomi _...Hagfishes, I/ampreys. 

Ichthyopsida \ Pisces Fishes. 

I Batrachia J Frogs, Toads, Sala- 

j manders. 
• I Snakes, Lizards, 

I Reptilia < Turtles, Alliga- 

Sauropsida.- < { tors. 

I Aves Birds. 

, Mammalia Mammalia Marsupials, Mammals. 



ZOOLOGY 



^UNICAfA. 



The Ttinieates, or Sea Squirts, are regarded as degen- 
erate vertebrates. The larval forms are active tad-pole 
like creatures with the vertebrate characteristics well de- 
veloped but the adults are mere sacks, fixed to one spot with 
two apertures or siphons, an inlialent one and an ex- 
halent one. There is no trace of the larval notachord 
(rudimentary backbone). The nervous system is repre- 
sented by a single ganglion between the two siphons. The 
main portion of the interior of the sack is occupied by a 
branchial chamber ending in a coiled intestine. The heart 
and excretory organs are poorly developed. 

KNTKROPNBJUSTA. 

Only one genus belonging to this class has been found. 
This is Balanoglossus, or acorn-tongued worm, a worm- 
like animal six to twelve inches in length with a peculiar 
club-shaped proboscife protruding from a sort of a collar at 
the anterior end of the body. Inside this collar is the 
mouth, opening into a branchial chamber, which is per- 
forated by many gill-slits communicating with the ex- 
terior. The nervous system and circulatory system are 
scarcely developed at all. 

I^^PTOCARDII. 

This class is represented by several species of lancelets. 
They are small, translucent fish-shaped animals without 
head, eyes or fins. A cartilaginous rod (notachord ) extends 
throughout the body. Above this is a nerve cord ending 
anteriorly in a slight enlargement inclosing a speck of 
pigment which renders the brain sensitive to light. The 
mouth is without jaws, and opens into a branchial chamber 
containing many gill-slits. Water, containing food par- 
ticles, enters this chamber through the mouth and passes 
out through the slits and escapes by an aperture on the 

2 



ZOOLOGY 

under side of the body. The food is strained out by 
the g-ill arches and passed back into the intestine. This an- 
imal, under the name of Amphioxus, has been much studied 
by anatomists because it shows the vertebrate type in the 
simplest form. 

CYCIvOSTOMI. 

The members of this class are peculiar eel-shaped an- 
imals with cartilaginous skeletons. They are easily dis- 
tinguished from the true fishes by their sucking mouth 
without jaws, their single median nostril on top of the 
head, their six pairs of sack-like gills, and their lack of 
paired fins. The hagfishes are marine and parastic upon 
living fishes. They attach themselves to the cod and bore 
their way into the abdominal cavity. The lampreys are 
both marine and fresh water in habitat, and most of them 
suck the blood of living fishes, although they may also 
feed on worms, insects and crustaceans. They ascend the 
fresh water streams to spawn and are often found in the 
Great I^akes and in the Mississippi valley. 

PISCES. 

The class Pisces includes all the true fishes. They are 
characterized, when compared with the previously described 
forms, by the presence of jaws, shoulder girdle and pelvic 
girdle (bony cartilaginous arches for the support of the 
fins), and by feather-like gills attached to bony or car- 
tilaginous gill arches. 

Anatomy of the Fish.— If we examine a common 
fish like the sun fish or perch, we find that it has a deep 
laterally flattened trunk with a paddle-like tail. There is 
no neck, the triangular head being attached directly to the 
trunk. Hard overlapping scales cover most of the body. 
The tail ends in a symetrically two-parted (homocercal) 
caudal fin. On the back are one or more unpaired dorsal 



ZOOLOGY 

fins and on the ventral side an unpaired anal fin. An- 
terior to the anal fin and attached to the pelvic girdle is a 
pair of ventral or pelvic fins corresponding- to the hind 
legs of higher vertebrates. Further forward, attached to 
the shoulder girdle is a pair of pectoral fins correspond- 
ing to the front legs of higher vertebrates. Just in front 
of the anal fin is a small pit, uro-genital aperture, and 
just anterior to this is a larger aperture, the anus. 

The head is provided with a broad mouth, movable 
jaws, and large round eyes without lids. The nostrils con- 
sist of two pairs of apertures opening into two olfactory pits 
in front of the eyes but not communicating with the throat 
as in higher vertebrates. There are no external ears but 
the internal ears are composed of complicated canals filled 
with a liquid in which are suspended calcareous concre- 
tions, or otolitlis. On the sides of the head are rows of 
mucous tubes. A line of them (lateral line) extends 
down each side of the body to the tail. These mucous 
tubes are closely connected with a large nerve (the vagus) 
and probably serve some important purpose not yet dis- 
covered by zoologists. 

Where the head is attached to the body there is a flap 
(operculum) which covers over the four gill arches. 
Each gill arch bears a double fringe of gills on the outer 
edge, and rows of short, blunt projections (gill-rakers) 
along the inner edge. The gill-rakers serve to strain the 
food out of the water which is taken in at the mouth and 
ejected through the gill-slits. 

Inside the mouth is a short, thick, immovable tongue. 
Short, sharp-pointed teeth are found on the jaw bones, 
generally on the roof of the mouth and palate, and fre- 
quently in the throat. The four pairs of gill-slits open 
outward from the throat. A short gesphagus leads into 

4 



ZOOLOGY 

a stomach which in turn opens into a more or less coiled 
or looped intestine. A large sized liver secretes bile and 
a number of fing-er-like projections at the beg-inning- of the 
intestine secretes a sort of pancreatic fluid which aids in 
digestion. 

The heart lies on the ventral side just back of the gills 
and is two-chambered. The blood is collected from the 
entire body into a thin-walled reservoir, the siniis veno- 
sus, from where it passes into the auricle, thence into 
the muscular ventricle. By the rythmical pulsations of 
the ventricle it is forced through the bulb-like conus 
arteriosus into the ventral aorta which carries it forward 
to the gills to be oxygenated. From the gills ii4 is col- 
lected by the dorsal aorta and distributed throughout the 
body. 

The kidneys extend throughout the length of the dorsal 
side of the abdominal cavity close to the spine, and carry 
off the waste matters through the uro-genital aperture. 
The reproductive organs consist of a pair of sacs (ovaries 
in the female, containing eggs ; testes in the male, con- 
taining spermatozoa) which discharge their contents 
through the uro-genital aperature. An air bladder, orig- 
inally connected with the oesphagus but eventually closed, 
gives the fish the same specific gravity as the water and 
enables it to rest at any depth in the water. 

The nervous system consists of a brain and a spinal 
cord which send nerves to all parts of the body. The lobes 
of the brain are all about equally developed. The small 
cerebellum without convolutions lies in front of the optic 
lobe ; the cerebellum overlaps the medulla oblongata, 
which tapers out to form the spinal cord. 



ZOOLOGY 

Ol^HBR FISHKS. 

The class Pisces may be divided as follows: 

iElasmobranchi ) ( Sharks, 

or V ■{ Rays. 
Selachii. ) { Torpedoes. 

Holocephali J Chimaera (Strange bodied 

\ forms). 
^ 1 , . ( Including- all otlier true 

Teleostomi ) Aslies^ like the Bass, Cod, 
( Trout, Perch, Catfish, etc. 

The Elasmobranchs have a skeleton composed of 
cartilage instead of bone ; there is no operculum to cover 
the g-ills ; there are five g-ill-slits instead of four as in the 
sunfish, and the slits appear as five distinct slashes back 
of the head. In addition to these slits there is a pair of 
small apertures (spiracles) opening out of the top of the 
head through which water can pass from the mouth ; the 
teeth are distinct and often highly specialized ; the eyes 
can be closed by a translucent membrane (nictitating 
membrane), and the eggs are few and very large. There 
is no swim-bladder as in the bony fishes. Instead of a 
coiled intestine, there is a short, thick intestine with a 
peculiar spiral structure (spiral valve) inside, resembling 
an auger, which causes the food to rotate as it passes 
down the intestine and thus come in contact with a greater 
amount of absorptive surface. Instead of a liomocercal 
tail there is a heterocercal tail, that is, the divisions 
are of unequal size, the dorsal one being larger. 

The Sharks have elongated bodies with gill open- 
ings on the sides. They are active, fierce fishes, usually 
large, sometimes forty feet long. They live near the sur- 
face of the ocean, feeding for the most part upon other 
fishes. The mouth of the shark is on the under side, so 
that it has to turn over on its back to seize its prey. When 
swimming near the surface its dorsal fin sticks out of the 
water, and this has served as a warning to many a bather 
and enabled him to escape from the voracious jaws. 

6 



ZOOLOGY 

Among sharks, the hammer-headed shark is most peculiar. 
Its head is shaped like a mallet, is about twice as wide as 
long and has the eyes situated at the ends of the lateral 
expansions. 

The Rays, or Skates, have a broad, flattened body 
with the gill-slits and mouth on the under side. They 
live at the bottom of the ocean and feed upon crabs, 
mollusks, etc. The Torpedoes, or Electric Rays, have 
two large electrical organs, one on each side of the body 
just behind the head, with which they can give an electric 
shock strong enough to temporarily disable a man. 

The Sawfish, which belongs to this group, is shark- 
like in appearance, with a snout developed injp a saw 
sometimes six feet in length. 

The Teleostomi, or bony fishes, are distinguished 
from the Elasmobranchs by having bony instead of carti- 
laginous skeletons; by having the skull provided with 
thin bones covered with skin (membrane bones); and 
by having the eggs small and numerous. In the main the 
characteristics are as given in the description of the typical 
fish. This class includes a multitude of forms arranged 
in many families. Almost all our food fishes come under 
this head. In the sea are many strangely modified forms 
with curious habits and adaptations. 

The Flounder, or Flat Fish, has lived at the bottom 
of the sea, lying on its side for so many ages that the side 
next the bottom has lost its color while the other side has 
taken on colorations similar to the background against 
which the fish rests. Moreover, the eye which should be 
on the under side has moved over to the upper side close 
to the other eye. 

The Anglers have some of the dorsal fin rays elon- 
gated into fishing rods which bend forward over the head 

7 



ZOOLOGY 

and dangle red streamers near the mouth to lure the small 
fishes within reach of the capacious jaws. Some deep sea 
forms carry phosphorescent lanterns on these spines. 

Some have well developed pectoral fins so that they 
can buoy themselves up in the air for a short time when 
hard pressed by their enemies (Flying Fish). Still others 
have the pectorals so developed that they can use them for 
crawling over the bottom (Sea Robin). Some bury them- 
selves in mud, which, with slime from the body, forms 
about them a sort of tight cement ball in which they may 
lie dormant for several seasons ( Protopterus). Many fishes 
have the swim bladder curiously modified so that they can 
make peculiar grunting or tapping sounds (Sea Robin). 

BATRACHIA. 

The class BatracMa, sometimes called Amphibia, 
includes the frogs, mud puppies, salamanders, and a few 
tropical forms. This group of animals, though differing 
considerably from the fishes, is really closely related to 
them. The larval forms are always fish-like in appear- 
ance, breathing by means of gills, but the adult forms 
generally lose their gills and breathe by means of lungs. 
L/ike fishes and reptiles, they are cold blooded. The limbs, 
instead of being fin-like and supported by fin-rays as in 
fishes, are well developed for walking or leaping. They 
also differ from fishes in having no opercular bones or gill 
arches. 

Body Form. — The body varies from a long slender 
snake-like form in the tropical coecilians, through the sala- 
mander form, where it is thicker and divisible into a head, 
neck, trunk and tail, to the frog form, where it is short, 
squat and tailless. The limbs are well developed in frogs 
and toads and have four digits in front and five behind ; 
are short and weak in the salamanders; are present in 

8 



ZOOLOGY 

front only in the mud eels, and entirely absent in the 
coecilians. The skin is naked and secretes a mucous which 
keeps it soft and moist, showing a marked difference from 
the scaled condition of fishes and reptiles. Variously col- 
ored pig-ments are contained in contractile and expansile 
cells (chromatophores) so that the animal can change its 
tint and markings to some extent. 

All Batrachians possess external gills in the aquatic 
larval stage, and in a few forms (mud puppies and sirens) 
retain them throughout life. These gills are branched 
folds of skin supplied abundantly with blood vessels, and 
may be seen on very young tadpoles of toads and frogs, 
lyater the gills may become inclosed by a sort of operculum 
with a small opening (spiracle ) on the left side, through 
which the water, taken in at the mouth, is ejected. 

In the skeleton the number of vertebrae may be as 
many as 250 ( in the snake-like coecilians) or as few as 10 
(in the frogs and toads). All the vertebrae may have ribs 
attached (as in the coecilians), or there may be none at all, 
as in the frogs and toads. This gives rise to a curious 
phenomenon. Frogs and toads cannot inhale air by chest 
expansion, like higher vertebrates, but must force it into 
the lungs by swallowing. Whenever there are ribs they 
are not fastened to the breastbone. 

The alimentary canal is much longer than the body 
and divided into mouth, oesophagus, stomach, coiled intes- 
tine, rectum and anal opening. A large liver supplies bile, 

and a pancreas supplies pancreatic juice to the intestine. 
There are generally short, sharp teeth fused to the jaws 
and to the palate. A tongue may or may not be present. 
When present it may be immovable, or it may be fastened 
in front with the back end free so that it can be protruded 
far from the mouth to snap up insects, as in the frog and 
toad. 



ZOOLOGY 

The organs of respiration are gills, external and in- 
ternal, lungs, trachea, or windpipe, and the skin. In most 
cases, as the gills disappear the lungs begin to develop. In 
some salamanders, however, the lungs never develop, but 
the animals in the adult stage breathe entirely by the 
absorption of oxygen through the skin. In the mud puppies 
the gills persist throughout life, although the lungs are 
also present. The lungs consist of two simple sac-shaped 
organs with the walls thrown into ridges and richly sup- 
plied with blood vessels. In frogs there is no windpipe, 
but in the salamanders there is a tubular trachea. The 
croaking of frogs and toads is produced by a pair of vocal 
cords stretched across the opening into the lungs (glottis). 

The heart is three-chambered, consisting of the right 
and left auricles and a single ventricle, (In the fish recall 
that there is a single auricle and a single ventricle). 
Venous blood charged with carbon dioxide, enters the right 
auricle and purified blood from the lungs^ enters the left 
auricle. From the auricles both kinds pass into the ven- 
tricle and mingle, and then are forced out into the bulb-like 
conus-arteriosus, whence a portion returns to the lungs, 
while the rest is distributed throughout the body, or if the 
gills are present this portion passes through the gills before 
going to the rest of the body. In frogs and toads there are 
two aortic arches which curve around to the spine, one on 
the right and one on the left, and unite to form the dorsal 
aorta. As in fishes, there is a sort of reservoir (sinus 
venosus), which collects the blood before it goes into the 
right auricle. Where there are no lungs developed the 
circulation is essentially like that of the fish. 

The brain is similar to that of the fish except that the 
cerebellum is very poorly developed. The sense organs are 
better developed than in the fish. Special taste organs 

10 



ZOOLOGY 

line the mouth cavity and cover the tongue, tactile nerve 
endings render the whole skin sensitive to touch ; in some 
forms there are no eyelids, but in frogs and toads there is 
an upper lid but no lower one, and the eyeballs are retrac- 
tile ; the ears are supplied with large tympanic membranes 
conspicuous on the exterior. Eustachian tubes connect 
the cavity back of the tympanum with the mouth. The 
nostrils open directly into the roof of the mouth and in the 
air breathing forms can be closed by muscular contraction. 

The reproductive organs of the female consist of a 
pair of large ovaries, producing many eggs, which are set 
free in the body cavity and gathered up by the funnel- 
shaped openings of a pair of convulated tubes ((widucts) 
and carried to the exterior through an enlarged portion of 
the rectum called the cloaca. In the male the testes pro- 
duce sperm-cells which find their way through the tubules 
of the kidneys into the ureters which serve the double 
purpose of carrying the male reproductive products and the 
urine to the exterior through the cloaca. In frogs and 
toads there is a small urinary bladder near the cloaca which 
serves to retain the urine for a time. 

Tjite History. — In all batrachians except a few sala- 
manders, the eggs are laid by the females in the water and 
fertilized by the male as soon as they are deposited. The 
larvae, called tadpoles, are, in the earlier stages, fish-like 
in character, with long bodies, flattened fin-like tails, and 
external gills which dangle in the water. At first there 
are no legs, but, as the tadpoles develop, the legs begin to 
appear, the hind legs first in frogs and toads, the fore legs 
first in salamanders. In most forms lungs develop and the 
gills disappear. In frogs and toads the tail disappears, in 
salamanders the tail-fin only is lost. At the same time 
they quit their aquatic life and take to the land. In the 

11 



ZOOLOGY 

larval state they generally feed upon vegetable matter, but 
after metamorphosis is completed they live upon animal 
matter, such as insects, worms, snails, etc., etc. 

Classification. — The Batrachia may be divided as 
follows: 

CLASS. ORDER. KXAMPLES. 



Urodela 

(Retain tail throug-hout life; two pairs 
of limbs; Egills and g-ill-slits in adult 
condition.) 



Catracliia < Anura 

I (No tail in adult conditioa ; trunk short 
land broad; hind limbs well developed; 
'without gills or g-ill-slits in adult stage. 



Sirens. 
Mud puppies. 
Salamanders, 
Newts. , 



Frogs. 
Toads. 



Gymnopliiona j Coecilians 

(Snake-like; neither limbs nor tail; der- 
mal exoskelton, without gills or gill- 
\slits in adult stage.) ^^ 

The siren, or mud-eel, is found in the ditches and 
swamps of the southern states and Mississippi valley as 
far north as Alton, Illinois. They are blackish in color 
and reach a length of nearly three feet. The mud puppy, 
or water dog (Necturus), is found in most of the rivers, 
from the Hudson to the Mississippi valley. Its external 
gills are very large and red. The animal is brown, with 
colored spot^, and reaches a length of two feet. The blunt- 
nosed salamanders (Amblystoma), are interesting. One 
species, tigrinum, is dark brown, with many irregular 
yellow blotches, sometimes arranged in cross-bands. Be- 
sides these there are many small salamanders, or newts, a 
few inches in length, which live in brooks and under logs. 
Spelerpes is lemon yellow and white below. Desinog- 
nathus is brown above with gray or purplish spots on the 
sides. Diemyctylus (common newt), is vermilion, 
(crimson) when young, changing to brown and finally to 
olive green or viridescent when mature. 



12 



ZOOLOGY 

There are several species of frogs in the Mississippi 
valley, of which the bull-frog (Rana catesbiana). is well 
known and prized for his hind legs, which are considered 
very palatable. The tree frogs, or tree toads, have little 
disk, or pad-like swellings, on the toes, which act as 
suckers, and 'enable them to cling to the branches and 
leaves of trees. 

The toads differ from the frogs in not having teeth and 
in lacking the cartilaginous process connecting the shoulder 
bones of the two sides of the body. The absence of this 
process enables the toad to swell up in an astonishing 
manner by filling the lungs with air. When attacked by a 
snake or other animal, they take advantage of this and 
often make their escape, because the snake has great diffi- 
culty in swallowing the toad when swollen in this way. 

Both frogs and toads lay black eggs incased in a 
whitish gelatinous envelope, which swells up by absorption 
of moisture. These eggs are very common in spring, 
tangled around water plants or sticks near the shore on the 
bottom of ponds or pools. The toads' eggs may be dis- 
tinguished from those of frogs and salamanders by their 
arrangement in strings, while the eggs of frogs and sala- 
manders occur in masses. The toads' eggs are also smaller 
and blacker. The young toads, as soon as metamorphosis 
is complete, leave the water and hop along very vigorously 
so that in a few days they may be a mile from the pond in 
which they were hatched. They conceal themselves by day 
but appear after a warm shower. This sudden appearance 
of so many young toads, gives rise to the false notion that 
they have fallen with the rain. 

Coecilians are snak^-like, with neither limbs nor tail. 
They have a dermal exoskeleton and are without gills or 
gill slits in the adult stage. They are found only in the 
tropics, 

13 



ZOOLOGY. 
OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

(I^IF^H PAPER.) 

1. Distinguish between Vertel)rates>nd Inverte- 
brates. 

2. Name the principal classes of Vertebrates. 

3. What animals are regarded as degenerate Verte- 
brates? 

4. What do the lowest forms of Vertebrates have in 
place of a backbone? 

5. What animal shows all the Vertebrate character- 
istics in their simplest form? 

6. How can the true fishes be distinguished from the 
lower fish-like forms? 

7. How are the fishes sub-divided? 

8. How do sharks differ from the Rays? 

9. How do fishes breathe? 

10. Describe the circulation of the fish. 

11. How many chambers has the heart of the fish? 

12. Define the terms liomocercal and heterocercal. 

13. What organs of fishes correspond to the limbs of 
higher Vertebrates? 

14. How do the nostrils of fishes differ from those of 
men? 

15. Has a fish any ears? Can it hear? 

16. When an ordinary fish sleeps does it close its eyes? 
Why? 

17. What kind of fishes can close their eyes? How? 

18. What is the lateral line of fishes? 

19. Describe some fishes which are peculiarly adapted 
to their environment. 

20. How do Batraehians differ from Pisces? 

21. Name some of the animals included under the head 
batracia. 

22. How do batrachians breathe? 

23. Compare the circulating system of batrachians 
with that of fishes. 

24. In what respects are the sense organs of batrachians 
better developed than those of fishes? 

25. Give the life history of the frog. 

26. How do salamanders differ from frogs? 

27. Why can a toad swell up and what advantage is it 
to the toad? 

14 



f^. 



PHYSICS. 

(FIFTH PAPFR.) 
:ei,KCTRIClTY AND MAGNETISM. 

We know nothing- of the nature of Electricity beyond 
the manifestations of its energy. That is, all we know of 
it is the result of methods of disturbing electrical equili- 
brium and the utilization of the energy thus developed. 

This may well be considered the century which will 
witness the domination of this wonderful power, just as 
certainly as in the nineteenth century steam was pre- 
eminent; but its scope and its influence will b^as much 
broader and deeper as the grasp of human intellect and the 
possibilities of human achievment exceed those of the pre- 
ceding period. 

A clear comprehension of prevalent conditions in this 
instructive and interesting branch of science, necessitates 
constant study, not so much of new manifestations, as of 
new appliances and conditions in electrical science. 

Ivittle more can be done in a work of this character than 
to call attention to some of the familiar phenomena and the 
methods of making practical use of the energy thus pro- 
duced. 

The manifestation of electricity may be arranged under 
three heads: 1, Magnetic; 2, Static; 3, Dynamic. Its mag- 
netic properties will be considered under the head of mag- 
netism. Free electricity moving as a current is termed 
Dynamic and includes Galvanism and Faradism. 

MAGNETISM. 

, Magnets are bodies having power to attract iron and 
one or two other substances. This property is called mag- 
netism, a name derived from Magnesia, in Asia Minor, 



PHYSICS 

where this property was first observed. The magnets in 
common use are iron or steel artificially magnetized. The 
natural magnet is a species of iron ore called loadstone. 
An electromagnet is an artificial magnet produced by the 
action of an electrical battery. Artificial magnets are of 
two kinds. 1. Temporary, made of soft iron, which acquires 
magnetism readily but loses it as readily as acquired; 2. 
Permanent, made of hardened steel which cannot be as 
highly magnetized as soft iron. 

The presence of magnetism in any object may be shown 
by: 1. Its power of attracting iron filings, etc. 2. By 
attracting or repelling other magnets. 3. When freely 
suspended it will arrange itself so as to point toward the 
poles of the earth. It will impart its own magnetic proper- 
ties to iron or steel. 

The magnetic poles of the earth do not correspond to 
its geographical poles. They are located at points where 
the magnetic needle becomes vertical or perpendicular to 
the horizon when it is hung in such a manner that it may 
revolve perpendicularly to the earth's surface. Between 
these two points is a point where the magnectic needle 
stands parallel to the earth's surface. 

If a sheet of paper be placed between a magnet and 
some iron filings they will be influenced by the magnet and 
arrange themselves as if in contact with it. It. has been 
found by experiment that magnetic forces will act across 
a vacum, water and other substances except across iron or 
other magnetic material. Natural magnets do not increase 
in power in proportion to their increase in size. A horse- 
shoe magnet is three or four times as powerful as a bar 
magnet. A horse shoe magnet weighing one pound ought 
to lift a weight of twenty pounds. 



PHYSICS 

The points of strongest action in a magnet are near the 
ends and are called the poles. Two like poles, both posi- 
tive or both negative, repel each other; unlike poles attract 
each other; the force between two magnetic poles varying 
directly as the product of their strengths, and inversely as 
the square of their distance apart. If a magnet be broken, 
each part will be found to be a complete magnet with two 
poles, however small the parts may be. This leads to the 
theory of molecular magnets, i. e., that every molecule of 
a magnet is a complete magnet. The space around a mag- 
net through which it extends its action is a magnetic field. 
The magnetic field may be determined in the following 
way. Place a bar magnet horizontal and move a smaL 
compass needle around it slowly. Occasionally observe the 
direction of the needle when at rest. At points equally 
distant from the poles of the magnet the direction of the 
needle will be parallel to the axis of the magnet. As the 
needle approaches either pole of the magnet the more 
strongly is the unlike pole attracted and the like pole 
repelled. When the needle is at rest it always points in 
the direction of the resultant of all the magnetic forces that 
act upon it. At a comparatively small distance the magnet 
ceases to exert any perceptible influence upon the needle. 

Why the earth tends to turn a magnet on its axis but 
has no tendency to move the magnet either north or south 
is very easily explained. The magnetic field of the earth 
is enormous in extent and the lines of force at any place 
are parallel lines. The earth, therefore, exerts upon the 
poles of the magnet two equal parallel forces that act in 
opposite directions. Such a pair of forces, is, in Mechanics 
called a couple, and tends to produce rotation. 

Frictional or Static Electricity is sometimes called 
Franklinism in honor of Benjamin Franklin, whose inves- 



PHTSICS 

tigations marked an era in electrical science. The very 
common experiments, those of rubbing a glass rod with 
silk, and sealing wax with woolen cloth, which causes them 
to acquire the property of attracting light bodies, as bits 
of paper, pith balls, iron filings, etc., are examples of elec- 
trification. The contact of dissimilar molecules gives rise 
to the electric charge. It is supposed that the charge is 
due to a strained condition of the ether surrounding the 
electrified body. 

There are two kinds of electrification, — positive and 
negative. The glass rod in the experiment receives a posi- 
tive charge; the friction of the woolen cloth and the wax 
produce a negative charge in the wax. It may be stated, 
also, that the silk is negatively charged and the flannel 
cloth positively charged; for when friction between two 
substances results in an electrification of the one, the other 
is always oppositely charged. 

Similarly electrified bodies repel each other; and, bodies 
however charged, attract unelectrified bodies. Electric 
attraction and repulsion can be illustrated by further expe- 
riments as with the above, or other substances. 

The Electroscope is an instrument used to detect an 
electric charge as well as for testing whether the charge is 
positive or negative. A brass rod passed through the cork 
of a glass vessel terminates on the outside in a metal ball 
or disc. To the lower end of the rod is suspended two strips 
of gold-leaf. This is a simple form of the electroscope. 
When an electrified body is brought near the ball, or disc, 
the leaves will be charged similarly by induction, therefore 
they will mutually repel each other. Now if a body known 
to be positively charged is brought in contact with the disc 
and the divergence of the leaves becomes greater, we may 

4 



PHYSICS 

know the first charge was positive. If the leaves collapse, 
a similar test may be made with a negatively charged body. 
If then the leaves diverge more widely the first charge was 
negative. 

Conduction.— Substances that easily permit the flow 
of electricity over them are called conductors. No sub- 
stance is so poor a conductor that the electric charge can- 
not be forced through it, but some substances offer so great 
resistance that they are called insulators, or dielectrics. 
Dry air, ebonite, glass, etc., are some of the best insulating 
substances. Metals, charcoal, graphite, etc., are good con- 
ductors. A substance, in order to retain a charge of elec- 
tricity must be surrounded by some non-conductor. The 
substance or body is then said to be insulated. Glaie when 
kept dry and clean is one of the best insulators for practical 
purposes. If coated with varnish, moisture on its surface 
will interfere but little with its insulating power. "When 
an object is restored to a neutral condition by the touch of 
a conductor it is said to be discliarged. Any charged 
body may be discharged by connecting it with the ground 
by a good conductor or by passing it through a flame. 

Every electrified body exerts its action through a space 
called an electric field. If an electrified body is brought 
near an unelectrified conductor, i. e. , brought into an elec- 
trical field, the latter becomes electrified. A dissimilar 
electrification appears on the side nearer the charged body 
and a similar one on the f urtherside. Electrification pro- 
duced in this way, without contact with the electrified body, 
is electrification by induction. If a body is charged by 
placing it in direct contact with an electrified body, the 
process is called electrification by conduction. The charge 
produced in this way is one of the same kind as that of the 
communicating body. 

5 



PHYSICS 

Inductive action depends upon the nature of the medium 
between the electrified and the unelectrified body, or the 
dielectric. Glass has greater inductive power than air. 
The inductive power of air is taken as the unit and the 
specific inductive capacity of other dielectrics is determined 
upon this basis. When a body is electrified by induction 
the charge received will be opposite to that possessed by 
the inducing body. 

INDUCTION AND CONDUCTION COMPARED. 

By Induction: 

1. The inducing body does not lose any part of its 
electricity. 

2. The induced body receives a charge opposite to that 
of the inducing body. 

3. The induced body, the object to be electrified, must 
be in contact with the earth, either directly or by means of 
a good conductor. 

By Conduction: 

1. The conducing body loses part of its electricity. 

2. The same kind of electricity is received by the body 
acted upon. 

3. The object to be electrified must be insulated from 
the earth. 

The quantity of electricity is measured by reference 
to the force it exerts under certain conditions. Two bodies 
have the same quantity of electricity when they exert the 
same force upon a third body at the same distance from it. 

The electrostatic unit of quantity, is the coulomb. It is 
that quantity which exerts through the air force of one 
dyne on a similar quantity at one centimeter's distance, 
whether it is the force of attraction or repulsion. 

6 



PHYSICS 

EJxperiments have proved couclusively that the electric 
charg-e is entirely upon the outer surface of a charged con- 
ductor. Surface density is the term applied to the amount 
of electrification per unit of surface; it is greatest where 
surf ace curvature is greatest. On a sphere the density is 
uniform; on an oval shaped body it is greatest at the smal- 
ler end; on a cone the density increases toward the apex. 
A pointed conductor soon loses its charge while a sphere 
retains its charge better than a conductor of any other 
shape. 

The unit of capacity is the farad. It is that capacity 
of a conductor which requires unit quantity to produpe unit 
difference of potential. 

A pair of conductors slightly separated by a dielectric 
constitutes a condenser. It will be seen that the capacity 
of a condenser must depend on the distance between the 
conducting surfaces, their area, and upon the nature of the 
dielectric. Glass and ebonite are better dielectrics than air. 

By electromotive force we mean that agency which 
tends to produce or maintain a current of electricity through 
a conductor. The volt is the unit of electromotive force. 
It is the pressure required to maintain a current of one 
ampere against a resistance of one ohm — approximately 
the difference of potential between the zinc and copper 
elements of a DanielPs cell. The olini is the unit of 
resistance in conductors. The ampere is the unit of cur- 
rent strength. 

lilectricity may pass from one electrified body to another. 
The direction in which it passes depends upon which body 
has the higher potential, — the one from which it flows is 
said to be a higher potential than the one to which it flows. 

It will be seen, then, that the term potential is relative, 
and that it represents the degree of electrification of a body 

7 



^ '■'- ?rt" 



PHYSICS 

as compared with other electrified conductors, which deter- 
mines whether the direction of transfer of electricity is to 
it or from it. This direction of transfer depends upon 
relative potential and not upon the quantity of electrifica- 
tion. "Whenever there is a difference in potential between 
two objects there is a tendency for electricity to seek an 
equilibrium. This cannot be better illustrated than in 
violent thunderstorms when the electric level between the 
earth and clouds is so great that electricity can no longer 
pass quietly between them but darts in forked streaks and 
enormous flashes at every discharge. 

Atmospheric Electricity.— Certain clouds may be 
highly charged with electricity; indeed it seems to be the 
electrical function of clouds to collect and concentrate the 
electrification diffused in the atmosphere. It is evident 
that a very high potential must result, and this induces an 
opposite charge in the earth beneath it as well as in other 
clouds, the intervening air acting as a dielectric. As the 
potential of the cloud rises or sinks there will be a discharge 
from cloud to earth or from cloud to cloud, owing to a 
difference in potential. The lightning flash is simply the 
temporary incandescent heating of the air particles incident 
to the discharge. The charge induced on the earth accu- 
mulates on elevated objects, buildings, trees, etc., intensi- 
fying the attraction for the opposite electricity of the cloud, 
since the thickness of the dielectric is reduced. lyightning 
rods are used to protect buildings from lightning strokes, 
the metal of which the rod is composed being a better con- 
ductor than the building upon which it is placed. Care 
should be taken; however, to have good connection of the 
rod in water or moist earth, otherwise it will at best be 
ineffective. 



8 



PHYSICS 

The lieyden Jar is the best known and most conven- 
ient form of condenser. It is a glass jar, coated within and 
without, about three-quarters of the way to the top, with 
tinfoil. The inner coating- is connected by a chain to a 
metal rod which passes through the tight cover of the jar 
and terminates in a metal knob or disc. To charge the jar 
the outer coat is placed in electrical connection with the 
earth by holding it in the hand, or otherwise, and the knob 
is brought in connection with a charged body. The charge 
thus given to the inner coat induces an opposite charge in 
the outer coat. By mutual attraction these opposite charges 
are "bound" at the surface of the glass, between the coats, 
thus leaving the inner coat free to receive another charge, 
which acts inductively on the outer coat as before, and so 
on for some time. Thin jars sometimes break if heavily 
charged, proving that the glass or dielectric is in a state of 
strain. The jar can be discharged by bringing one end of 
a stout wire, provided with an insulated handle, in contact 
with the outer coat and the other end in contact with the 
knob, thus connecting the two coats and establishing an 
equilibrium. 

EI^KCTROKINKIMCS^. 

^ Continuous currents of electricity were first divised by 
Galvani (1786) and Voita (1792). Galvanism has been 
defined as that form of electricity generated by chemical 
action. The simplest form of cell consists of two pieces of 
dissimilar metals partially immersed in dilute sulphuric 
acid. The metals usually used are zinc and copper. No 
action takes place if the zinc is pure and the metals are not 
connected. The circuit is said to be closed or complete 
when the elements are connected outside the fluid. This 
may be done either directly or indirectly. Directly as when 
a wire is joined to one of the metals and then attached to 



PHYSICS 

the other; indirectly as when any substance or body which 
will permit the passage of a current of electricity through 
it is placed in contact with the ends of wires that have been 
attached to the two metals. The circuit is said to be open 
or broken when the current is arrested by disconnecting 
the two wires that have been attached to the two metals. 

Direction of Current.— The electric current may be 
regarded as starting at the zinc, passing through the fluid 
to the copper and from thence back through the connecting 
wires to the zinc. It may be briefly stated thus: — "The 
direction of the current in the fluid is from zinc to copper, 
outside the fluid from copper to zinc." There is really a 
current passing through the circuit in both directions at 
the same time but little attention is paid to the fact that 
there is a negative current coming from, instead of going 
to the zinc, etc. 

The Voltaic cell may be made in a simple way by 
partly immersing plates of copper and zinc in dilute 
sulphuric acid, one part of acid to ten parts of water. If 
we join the upper ends of the plates by a copper wire the 
zinc slowly wastes away. The zinc displaces the hydrogen 
from the acid, and enters into chemical union with the oxy- 
gen and sulphur to form zinc sulphate, which remains in 
solution. The wire shows evidence that an electric current 
is passing through it. We conclude that a difference of 
potential esists between the two plates, and the only 
explanation is in the chemical action just described. This 
action sends positive electricity to the copper and negative 
electricity to the zinc. 

The Daniell cell may be made in simple form by 
partly immersing a zinc bar in a porous jar containing 
dilute sulphuric acid, then placing this within a cylindrical 
sheet of copper which is partly immersed in a solution of 

10 



PHYSICS 

copper sulphate (blue vitriol), and connecting the zinc and 
copper. The zinc acts as in the above described cell and 
the hydrogen, set free, passes with the current through the 
porous jar, displacing copper in the copper sulphate, and 
sulphuric acid is formed. The free copper is deposited on 
the copper plate. Polarization is prevented which makes 
this one of the most constant cells. 

The gravity cell is a modification of the Daniell. The 
porous cup is dispensed with and the zinc is placed near the 
top of the jar with the copper plate at the bottom. The 
liquids are kept separate by their different densities. It is 
used on closed circuits, as for telegraph purposes, etc. 

The Lieclanche cell.— One of the latest forms of this 
cell is made by placing a cylinder composed of gas graphite 
and manganese dioxide with a core of gas carbon in a 
saturated solution of ammonium chloride, (sal-ammoniac). 
A cylindrical sheet of zinc is separated by rubber bands. 
Although polarization soon reduces its value when the 
circuit is closed, it depolarizes in open circuit, hence it is 
admirably adapted for ringing electric bells and for other 
purposes requiring a circuit for only a short time. 

The Smee cell consists of a silver or a lead plate 

suspended between two zinc plates immersed in a dilute 

solution of sulphuric acid. Polarization is prevented by 

giving the negative plate a coat of finely divided platinum. 

Both surfaces of platinum serve as a collecting plate. This 

cell does not furnish so powerful a current as some of the 

other varieties. 

The Potassium Bichromate Cell consists of zinc 
and carbon plates immersed in a solution of potassium 
bichromate dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid. By the action 
of sulphuric acid on the potassium chromic acid, which 
oxidizes the hydrogen, is liberated, thus preventing polar- 
ization. This cell is very convenient for quick use. 

11 



PHYSICS 

The Grove Cell consists of a cylinder of zinc immersed 
in a dilute solution of sulphuric acid. A porous cup con- 
taining strong nitric acid in which is immersed a strip of 
platinum is also suspended in the fluid. The nitric acid 
oxidizes the hydrogen evolved at the zinc plate. 

The Bunsen Cell differs from the Grove cell in that 
the plates used are of larger size, and in a substitution of 
carbon for platinum. The fumes coming from the nitric 
acid are offensive. This variety of cell is but little used. 

It must be remembered that the electromotive force 
depends almost wholly upon the nature of materials used. 
The source of the energy in the electric current is in the 
consumption of the zinc in the cells described above. In 
this consumption an equivalent of chemical energy is fouifd 
in the energy of the electric current into which it has been 
transformed. As long as the strain is reproduced by the 
chemical action of the cell as fast as it is relieved by the 
conductor joining the two poles, the difference of potential 
will be constant, and the current will be continuous and 
uniform. The principal differences between the different 
forms of cells are caused by the different devices for remov- 
ing hydrogen or for preventing its accumulation, i. e., to 
prevent polarization. 

A combination of two or more cells, in order to produce 
a stronger current than that furnished by one cell, is called 
a voltaic battery. When cells are connected, the positive 
plate of one with the negative plate of the next, and so on, 
they are said to be grouped in series. 

When all the positive plates are connected on one side 
and all the negative plates are connected on the other side, 
the cells are joined in parallel, or in multiple arc. The 
former method increases the electromotive force of the 
battery as many times as there are cells in the series, and 

12 



PHYSICS 

the internal resistance is increased to the same extent; 
while in the latter, the internal resistance^is decreased as 
many times as there are cells in multiple arc,but the elec- 
tromotive force is that of only one cell. 

When a current of electricity from one or more galvanic 
cells is passed throug-h a coil of wire the galvanic properties 
are modified to a great extent and a new current is prac- 
tically obtained. This current is known as the induced, 
interrupted or f aradic current. 

The wire through which the current passes is called the 
primary wire, and the current the primary current. The 
parallel wire is called the secondary or induced circuit and 
the current the secondary current. These wires are 
usually arranged in coils composed of many layers of 
wires, the primary coil, a "short coil" of coarse wire that 
it may have little resistance, lying within the secondary, 
a "long coil" of fine wire having many turns, from which 
it is separated by insulation. A steady flow of electricity 
through the primary coil will produce no effect over the 
secondary so long as it flows without interruption ; yet if 
the current suddenly be broken, a momentary wave or cur- 
rent will instantly flow through the others in the same 
direction as the original current. If now the current be 
re-established through the first coil, another momentary 
wave will pass through the second coil, but in an opposite 
direction to the one passing through the first coil. In- 
creasing or decreasing the current affects the direction of 
the momentary current in the same way as starting or 

stopping the primary current. 

If the primary will be replaced by a magnet it will be 
found that induced currents will be produced in parallel 
wires, either by motion of the magnet or by altering its 
strength. L^ike electric induction, magnetic induction 
occurs only at the instant the magnetism is disturbed. 

13 



PHYSICS 

PRIMARY AND SliCONDARY FARADIC CURRE^NTS 

COMPARl^D. 

PJRIMARY CURRENT. 

1. The primary current is composed of a single in- 
duced current, always going in the same direction. 

2. The primary current exhibits some galvanic prop- 
erties in that it deflects the galvanometer and possesses 
feeble electrolytic power. 

3. The primary current is less rapidly interrupted. 

4. The primary current possesses more power to ex- 
cite sensory and motor nerves of a muscle. 

SECONDARY CURRENT. 

1. The secondary current is composed of two currents 
which go alternately in contrary directions. 

2. The secondary current does not deflect the galvan- 
ometer. It may cause a delicate magnetic needle to oscil- 
late slightly, however. 

3. On account of its rapid interruptions the secondary 
current possesses distinct properties, different from those 
of any other current. 

4. The secondary current excites the cutaneous nerves 
very acutely and seems to penetrate the tissues very 
deeply. 

Resistance is either external or internal. The latter 
term is applied to the resistance of the generator, and the 
former includes all other resistance of an electric circuit. 

External Resistance.— Other things being equal, 
the resistance of a conductor is (1) directly proportional 
to its length; (2) inversely proportional to the area of its 
cross section, and (3) dependent upon the nature of the 
material of which it is made. In metal conductors resist- 
ance increases with a rise of temperature. German silver 

14 



PHYSICS 

is less affected by change of temperature than most other 
metals. The resistance of carbon diminishes with a rise 
of temperature. 

Internal Kesistance.— The resistance of the liquid 
conductor in the battery is modified by its length and cross 
section in the same general way as that of a metal con- 
ductor. Bringing the plates nearer together or increasing 
their size diminishes the internal resistance of a Voltaic 
cell. 

Ohm's Law.— The three factors, current strength, 
electromotive force and resistance are evidently dependent 
upon each other. In the well-known Ohm's Ivaw their 
relations to one another are stated. The current is equal 
to the electro-motive force divided by the resistance. 

C=^, Ei=RC, and R=^. 

This law is the basis of a large number of electrical 
measurements commonly made. Any two of the three 
quantities being given, the third may easily be calculated. 

Measurement of Resistance. — The Resistance 
Box consists of a cylindrical box containing a number of 
coils of German silver wire whose resistance vary from .1 
ohm to SO ohms. The total resistance is 160 ohms. The 
coils consists of insulated and double wires, the terminals 
of each being connected with brass blocks. Brass plugs 

are inserted between these blocks; the coils are short 
circuited and practically the whole current passes through 
the plugs from block to block. When a plug is withdrawn 
the current is obliged to traverse the corresponding coil. 
By withdrawing the proper plug any desired resistance 
within the capacity of the box may be obtained. 

The Wheatstone Bridge. — Space will not permit 
the proper description of the Wheatstone Bridge. It is 
recommended that the student procure some good text book 
and study this subject carefully. 

15 



PHYSICS 

When a wire carrying an electric current is divided 
into two parts, the current will divide, the partial currents 
varying- inversely as the resistance through which they 
pass in the branch. Either branch is called a shunt of 
the other branch. 

Magnetism and electricity are very closely related. In 
1820 Oersted discovered that an electric current was able 
to deflect a magnetic needle. This discovery is memorable 
in that it was the first of a series of discoveries establish- 
ing the common nature of magnetism and electricity. If a 
magnetic needle is held parallel to an insulated wire which 
carries an electric current a deflection of the needle will 
be observed. By changing the relative position of the 
wire and needle or by reversing the current the deflection 
will be reversed. If the wire is carried completely around 
the needle the effects of the upper and lower portions of the 
wire combine to increase the deflection of the needle. 

A copper wire, when traversed by a strong current, 
will attract iron filings so that they adhere to it in clusters. 
If the wire passes vertically through a cardboard upon 
which iron filings are sprinkled and a strong current sent 
through the wire, the filings will become small magnets 
for the time being, grouping themselves in rings around 
the wire. We may say then that an electric current pro- 
duces a magnetic field in its neighborhood and that the 
lines of force are concentric circles perpendicular to the 
direction of the current. 

A wire in the form of a spiral, through which a current 
of electricity passes, is called a solenoid. By experiment 
it may be seen that the solenoid acts as a magnet. The 
action of two solenoids upon each other is the same as 
that of two magnets. The end of the solenoid from which 
the lines of force issue is the north pole; the other end is 

16 



PHYSICS 

the south pole. When the wire is traversed by a strong 
current the solenoid will set itself, with its axis pointing- 
north and south just like a suspended magnet. If a small 
bar magnet is held with its south pole near the north pole 
of the solenoid, it will be pulled into the solenoid. If the 
north pole is presented strong repulsion will be observed. 

The Electromagnet.— The strength of the magnetic 
field within the solenoid is enormously increased by substi- 
tuting a cylinder of soft iron in place of air. An electro- 
magnet is a bar of iron round which insulated wire is 
coiled in the form of a spiral. The electromagnet may be 
of any shape but that of a horseshoe is usually chosen. 
This form increases the number of the lines of force and 
the strength of the magnet. To produce the best results 
the resistance of the electromagnet should equal that of 
the rest of the circuit. If several electromagnets are used 
the sum of their resistances should equal that of the rest 
of the circuit. An Armature is a soft bar of iron placed 
across the poles. By this means the lines of force lie 
wholly within the iron and their number become the great- 
est which a given current can produce. Electromagnets 
exceed permanent steel magnets. The greatest practical 
use of the electromagnet consists not in its lifting power 
but in the fact that its magnetism can be controlled at 
will. An electromagnet is a magnet only when an electric 
current passes through its coils. When the current is 
shut off the iron core returns to its natural condition. 

Ampere long ago suggested that magnetism is simply 
a vertical electric current and that a magnetic field is 
something similar to a whirlpool of electricity. Briefly 
stated his theory is that magnets and solenoid systems are 
fundamentally the same. This does not imply that a steel 
magnet contains an electric current which circulates round 

17 



PHYSICS 

and round it as does an electromag-net, but that every 
molecule is a magnet, that every molecule is the seat of a 
separate current which circulates round it without resist- 
ance. 

AMPERE'S I/AWS. 

1. Parallel currents in the same direction attract one 
another; parallel currents in the opposite direction repel 
one another. 

2. Currents that are not parallel tend to become 
parallel and flow in the same direction. 




18 



PHYSICS 
OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

(FIFTH PAPFR.) 

1. In what three ways may the manifestation of elec- 
tricity be arranged? 

2. What is a magnet? In what respect does an elec- 
tromagnet differ from a natural magnet? 

3. Where are the magnetic poles of the earth located? 
What is meant by the poles of a magnet? 

4. What are the two kinds of electrification? How 
would you determine the kind of electrification a body 
possesses? 

5. What is an electric field? Upon what does induc- 
tive action depend? 

6. Compare Induction and Conduction. 

7. What determines the direction of an electric cur- 
rent? Where, in an electrified body, is surface density 
greatest? 

8. Define ampere, coulomb, volt, ohm, farad. 

9. Discuss atmospheric electricity. Describe the I/ey- 
den Jar. 

10. What is meant by a closed circuit? Iri what ways 
may a circuit be closed? 

11. Describe the Voltaic cell. The Daniell cell. 

12. In what respect does a Bunsen cell differ from a 
Grove cell? 

13. Upon what does electromotive force depend? 

14. What is meant by joining cells in series? In 
parallel? 

15. Compare Primary and Secondary Faradic currents. 

16. What is the difference between external and in- 
ternal resistance? Discuss each. 

17. Describe the Resistance Box. What is a solenoid? 

18. j What is an electromagnet? An Armature? 

19. Upon what does the practical use of an electro- 
magnet depend? 

20. Give Ampere's laws. 

19 



GE,NERAL HISTORY. 

(FIFTH PAPER.) 
MFDIAEjVAi; HISTORY. 

Mediaeval History extends from the fall of Rome, A, D. 
476 to the discovery of America by Columbus, A. D, 
1492. It is an important period, for during" that time those 
forces were forming which were to make modern civili- 
zation what it has become. From A. D., 476, to the begin- 
ning- of the eleventh century, is the period usually known 
as the Dark Ages; from the beginning- of the eleventh cen- 
tury to A. D. 1492, the Revival of I^earning. % 

At first it seemed that the fall of Rome was an irre- 
trievable disaster, for instead of the civilized and cultured 
Romans and Roman Provincials, we find countless num- 
bers of half-savage Teutons, everywhere victorious and 
everywhere crushing out the works of civilization. But 
although they destroyed much, they gave something with- 
out which culture is vain and useless, and that is,cliarac- 
ter. If their manners were rude, their morals were excel- 
lent. They were lovers of their homes and families, and 
reverenced women. They were personally loyal and faith- 
ful, and loved liberty. They were very different from the 
degenerate Romans. 

Another striking characteristic of the Teutons was 
their capacity for civilization. Their own manners and 
customs, even their language and religion, quickly changed 
for the better under the influence of those whom they had 
conquered. So the accumulations of the Greeks and Ro- 
mans were not entirely lost. They were to enable the new 
race, in time, to go far ahead of the point they themselves 
had reached. 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

THE DARK AGES. 

The first thing to be taken up in the study of Mediaeval 
EJurope, is the History of the Teutonic Kingdoms that were 
founded on the ruins of the Roman l^mpire of the West. 
The most important of these were, 

I. THK KINGDOM OE ODOACER. 

Odoacer, leader of one of the tribes of the Visigoths, 
dethroned Romulus Augustulus, and ruled Italy seventeen 
years. 

II. THE KINGDOM OE THE OSTROGOTHS. 

Theodoric, in A. D. 493, drove Odoacer from his throne, 

and ruled over Italy for thirty-three years. His reign was 

peaceful and prosperous. In 553, the barbarians were 

driven out by Justinian, and Italy was reunited to the EJm- 

pire. 

III. The kingdom oE the i^ombards. 

The Ivombards subdued and settled in Northern Italy. 

The Monarchy they established was feudal in character so 

that the country was broken up into a number of petty 

states. The Kingdom was destroyed by Charles the Great, 

in 774. 

. IV. THE kingdom OE THE VANDAI^S. 

The Vandals passed from Western Europe to Africa, 
and made Carthage their Capital. They conquered not 
only Northern Africa, but Corsica, Sardinia and the 
Balearic Isles. They were pirates, and became, in a short 
time, the terror of the Mediterranean. They were finally 
conquered by Justinian, and included in his Kmpire (A. 
D.,5S3.) 

V. THE WESTERN KINGDOM OE THE VISIGOTHS 

They settled first in Southern Gaul until they were 
driven across the Pyrenees by the Franks. They ruled in 
Spain nntil the eighth century, when they were conquered 
by the Saracens. 



GENERAL HISTORY. * 

VI. THE ANGI,0-SAX0N KINGDOM IN KNGI^AND. 

When the Roman lyeg-ions were withdrawn from Eng- 
land in the fifth century, the Britons were exposed to 
attacks from the Picts and Scots on the north and west, 
and from the Ang-les, Saxons and Jutes on the east and 
south. In order to conciliate them, they gave to part of 
their foes, land in Kngland. But this simply tempted others 
of the Barbarians, and they came in great numbers. After 
a long, fierce struggle with the native Britons, they con- 
quered the island. Almost every trace of Roman civili- 
zation was blotted out. In the sixth century, kingdoms 
were established, known collectively as the Saxon-Hep- 
tarchy, For two hundred years there was a constant strug- 
gle among them for supremacy. Finally, in 802, Ivgbert, 
King of Wessex, became King of the United Kingdoms. 

The Anglo-Saxons were converted to Christianity by 
St. Augustine. The Celts, or native Britons, had been 
converted long before, but on account of the long separa- 
tion from Rome, certain differences in the method of wor- 
ship had sprung up. Over these, the Anglo-Saxons and 
Celts quarreled bitterly until the Council of "Whitby (A. 
D. 664) settled the matter. After this, the English al- 
ways looked to Rome for guidance, which was a very good 
thing. It hastened the political unity of England through 
its ecclesiastical unity ( the Celtic Church had had no ca- 
pacity for organization), and re-established the connection 
of the island with Roman civilization. 

VII. THE DANISH KINGDOM IN ENGI^AND. 

The Danes, or Northmen, were pirates, who were at- 
tracted to the English coast toward the end of the eighth 
century. They were soon in possession of half the country, 
when Alfred the Great (A. D. 871-901 ) came to the throne 
and held them in check. In spite of his heroic efforts, he 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

could not drive them from the island, but was compelled 
by the treaty of Wedmore (878) to give them all the north- 
eastern part of EJngland; in return for which, they received 
Christian baptism. 

King- Alfred did his people more lasting good by his 
services as a law giver and an author. He collected and 
revised the ancient laws of the Anglo-Saxons. He trans- 
lated many I^atin works into Knglish, tp which he added 
many reflections of his own. In this way he gave the first 
impulse to English lyiterature. 

During the century which followed the death of Alfred, 
the troubles with the Danes continued. Finally, a weak 
King, Ethelred H, gave the victory to the Danes. In 1016, 
Canute was made King of all IJngland. The Danes gave 
no new element to the population since they were closely 
related to the Saxons, but they invigorated and strength- 
ened the old Teutonic stock. 

VIII. Th:^ kingdom oif normandy (A. D. 912.) 

The Northmen made conquests and settlements, not 
only in Eingland, but also in Iceland and Greenland, in 
Sicily and Southern Italy, and [in Northern Gaul in 
the province which came to be known as Normandy. Here 
they quickly adopted the language, the manners, and the 
religion of the Romanized people whom they had con- 
quered. 

IX. TH]^ KINGDOM Olf TH^ BURGUNDIANS (443-534). 

They obtained a permanent foothold in Southern Gaul, 
but were finally absorbed by the Northern Kingdom, in the 
time of Clovis. 

X. THK KINGDOM OF FRANKS. 

The Franks early made settlements in Gaul. There 
were two branches of these people, known as the Ripu- 
arians and the Salians. The latter was the leading nation. 



OEyEBAL. HISTORY. 

and from it, their kings were chosen. The name Mero- 
vingian is given to this dynasty, on account of Merowig, 
one of the early chieftains. Clovis was their most famous 
king. In A. D. 486, he attacked and conquered the Roman 
Governor of Gaul and so destroyed forever Roman author- 
ity there. After the death of Clovis, the country was in 
a very unsettled state, and the kings became so weak, they 
were called "do-nothing Kings." 

At this time, the Frankish Monarchy was divided into 
two parts, Austrasia and Neustria. At the head of each 
part]was an officer of the crown, known as Mayor of the Pal- 
ace (Major Domus). These men grew rapidly very powerful, 
but in the end, the Austrasian family proved the a|ronger, 
dispossessed the Merovingian King, and established a 
new royal line — the Carolingian. Three successive prin- 
ces. Pippin II, Charles Martel, and Pippin III, by their 
wonderful energy and great achievements, raised the new 
dynasty to a place of great dignity and power. There was 
one deed of Charles' s that made him great, not only for 
his own, but for all time. By his victory over the Saracens 
at Tours, or Poitiers, in Central France, A. D. 732, he 
saved Europe from Mohammedan subjection and conse- 
quent stagnation. As a direct result, he became King in 
fact, though not in name; his son, Pippin III, was the 
first to bear that title. 

At that time the kingly name was held in great rever- 
ence. Pippin did not boldly assume it, but first sent to 
Pope 2^acharias for his sanction. The Pope was glad to 
have Pippin for a friend, so he sent back the reply that 
it seemed altogether reasonable that the one who was 
King in power should be King also in name. Then 
Pippin was anointed King of the Franks by Bishop Boni- 
face in the name of the Pope (A. D. 751). I^ater he was 

S 



GENERAL. HISTORY. 

able to return the favor done him by the Pope. When the 
latter was troubled by the L<ombards, Pippin came to his 
aid with an army. He drove out the Ivombards and made a 
donation to the Pope of the regained lands. This gift laid 
the basis of the temporal power of the Popes, a very im- 
portant circumstance in a later time. 

Pippin died in 768, and was succeeded by his son 
Charles, afterwards called Charlemagne, or Charles 
the Great. His reign is filled with military expeditions 
and conquests. He extended his dominions so that, at his 
death, they embraced the larger part of Europe. He un- 
dertook fifty-two military campaigns. The most important 
were: 

(1). Against the L/ombards.— The King, Desiderius, 
quarreled with Pope Adrian, and threatened to seize his 
territory. But Charles interfered, seized his possessions, 
and put upon his own head the famous iron crown of the 
Ivombards. He then confirmed the donation of his father 
Pippin to the Pope (774). 

(2). Against the Moors in Spain. — In this expedition, 
he won the northeastern corner of the Peninsula, and 
called it the Spanish March (778). 

(3). Against the Saxons. — This was a very long and 
desperate contest, for the Saxons were fighting, not only 
for their homes, but also for their religion. It was because 
Charles wished to establish Christianity among them that 
he was anxious to subdue them. The massacre of Verdun 
(782), ended their obstinate resistance, and their heroic 
leader, Witikind, surrendered. But many of the Saxons 
fled to Scandinavia, and joined with the Vikings in their 
depredations of the European countries. 

(4). Against the Avars. — They were savages of the 
Semitic race. They had harrassed the Bavarians until 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

Charles came to their relief. After fifteen years of fighting, 
he broke their power, destroyed their * 'Great Ring" (a sort 
of Royal Camp and stronghold), and made them trib- 
utaries. 

This was one of Charles's greatest services to the 
young Christian Civilization. 

Another important event in the reign of Charles, was 
the restoration of the Empire in the West (800). It was 
important on account of its influence upon succeeding 
affairs. The successors of the C^sars had, all the time, 
kept Constantinople as the capital of their Empire, and 
their authority, of course, was acknowledged by their sub- 
jects in the West. But disputes had risen between the 
Church of the East and that of the West, and the Emperors 
had tried to make the I^atin Church introduce certain 
changes in its mode of worship. This naturally aroused the 
hostility of the Bishops of the Western Church. Conse- 
quently, when Irene, the mother of the Emperor, Constan- 
tine VI, deposed her son, -and declared herself Empress, the 
Italians claimed that the throne was vacant. Thus it 
happened that Pope I^eo III, was led to reward Charles the 
Great for his services to him, by crowning him and pro- 
claiming him Emperor and Augustus. It is true, he was 
not acknowledged in the East, and for some centuries after- 
wards, there were, most of the time, two Emperors, one in 
the East and one in the West. Nor did the title bring with 
it additional lands and wealth. Even the claim that the 
Emperor was the head of the Christian Church in all 
secular matters, as the Pope was in all spiritual matters, 
was not true, for there were always Christian countries 
which were not in the Empire. But Charlemagne believed 
that he had received additional dignity and honor, and at 
once proceeded to perform the duties of "God's representa- 



GENERAL fHISTOBY. 

tive on earth." The trouble was, that he did not dis- 
tinguish between the duties of the EJmperor and those of 
the Pope. The succeeding- Umperors had the same diffi- 
culty, so that endless quarrels, between Church and State, 
naturally followed. 

But Charles's most noteworthy work was that done as 
legislator and administrator. The Bmperor himself took 
a personal and intense interest in all the affairs of his 
Kmpire, and decided all important questions. He did, to 
be sure, have what was known as the Diet, or General 
Assembly, which met once a year, but its duties were mere- 
ly the giving of advice and information to the IJmperor. 
Then he collected decrees, decisions, and instructions in 
regard to every kind of matter, drawn up by himself alone, 
or with the aid of the Diet. They are called his "Capitu- 
laries*" The country he divided into administrative dis- 
tricts, called counties, at the head of each of which was a 
Governor with the title of Count. There were other 
officials, but the most interesting were the Missi Dominici 
(itinerant commissioners). The duty of these men was to 
visit all parts of a given circuit, note and correct what was 
wrong, and report to the Emperor. In this way he was 
kept in close touch with all parts of his great Empire. 

The Church also received a great deal of attention 
from Charles. He frequently called Synods, or Councils 
of the Clergy, presided over their meetings, and gave them 
needed advice and encouragement. 

In regard to educational matters, he was himself a 
great student all his life, and he earnestly wished to in- 
struct his subjects also. He invited Alcuin, the celebrated 
scholar, from England, and with his assistance, established 
many schools in connection with the various Cathedrals 
and Monasteries. He himself attended what was known as 

8 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

the Palace School, which included his children and cour- 
tiers. The establishment of these schools marks the be- 
ginning- of a new intellectual life for Western Europe. 

To sum up briefly the results of his reign, in the first 
place, he brought this land of barbarians within the pale 
of civilization; in the second place, in the revival of the 
Empire, he gave to the following generation, **a great 
political ideal," and so largely in^uenced their history; in 
the third place, although he could not give to the various 
races in his Empire, permanent political unity, they did 
not wholly lose the good results of being brought together 
as one nation. They could never again be the heterogen- 
eous mass they were before his reign. 

THK TR:eATY OF VERDUN (A. D. 843.) ^ 

After the death of Charles the Great, his son I^ewis 
succeeded to the throne. He shared his power with his 
four sons, but this caused much quarreling and trouble, 
which became worse after L<ewis died. Finally the 
question was settled by the Treaty of Verdun in 843. 
According to its provisions, the son I^ewis received the land 
east of the Rhine, which later became Germany; Charles 
the territory west of the Rhone and the Meuse, afterwards 
France; lyothair, the third surviving son, the strip of 
land lying between the possessions of his brothers and in- 
cluding Italy. lyothair also received the Imperial title. 

This treaty is celebrated because it is the first great 
treaty among the European States, and because it marks 
the separation, and to a certain extent, the origin of two 
great nations of modern Europe — France and Germany. 

Renewal of the Empire by Otto the Great 
(962). The period immediately following the death of 
Charles the Great is particularly uninteresting and in- 
volved. The descendants of I^othair, who had the title of 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

Kmperor, gained little honor or power on account of it. 
But in 936 a very able man succeeded to the throne of Ger- 
many. This was Otto I., afterwards called "The Great." 
He was made King of Italy, extended his dominions and 
received submission from Slavs, Danes, Poles, and Hun- 
garians. In 962 he was crowned Emperor of the Romans, 
and from this time on it became the rule to give the 
imperial title and the crown of Italy to that prince who 
was selected as king by the German electors. The Empire 
was called the Holy Roman Empire. 

THE) ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST. 

For some time after the fall of Rome, it seemed as if 
Constantinople must also be given over to the barbarian 
conquerors. It is very fortunate that this did not happen, 
for it would have hindered the progress of civilization very 
seriously. For a thousand years Constantinople was -the 
refuge for Graeco-Roman learning and culture. That it 
was able to stand for so long was due, without doubt, to 
the achievements of the Emperor, Jvistinian, and of his 
general, Belisarius. 

Justinian ruled from A. D. 527 to 565. His outwardly 
brilliant reign has been likened to that of I^ouis XIV. of 
France. Although he beautified and improved the capital 
city and made it respected abroad, there was great dissat- 
isfaction among the people. They were burdened by heavy 
taxation, they suffered from famine and, following that, 
from that dreadful plague which is said to have destroyed 
one-third of the population of the Empire. There were 
several unusually heavy earthquakes during this time, 
which cost many people their lives. Then there were 
numerous riots which caused great loss of life and prop- 
erty. There were two rival factions in Constantinople 
which grew out of the chariot races of the circus. They 

10 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

were called the Blues and the Greens. The rivalry was 
carried into their religious and political life and led to 
many violent outbreaks. In 532 occurred the "Nika" riot, 
in which the Blues and the Greens united in order to 
destroy the government. They set fire to the city and for 
five days the fire raged, destroying many of the best build- 
ings in the city. Finally 35,000 of the rioters were killed 
by the soldiers and the riot ended. 

But in spite of these calamities, Justinian did many 
things for which he is greatly to be admired. The most 
important was the collection and publication'of the Corpus 
Juris Civilis, the "Body of the Roman lyaw." This con- 
tained all the law knowledge of the ancient Romans and 
was the most precious legacy of Rome to the world. Upon 
this code are founded the law systems of most of the lead- 
ing states of modern Europe, and every one has been 
greatly influenced by it. Hence Justinian is called the 
"I^awgiver of Civilization." 

Besides this, Justinian introduced the silk industry, 
which became an important factor in the industrial life of 
Europe. He ornamented and beautified the city, built 
aqueducts, established hospitals, built churches, and rebuilt 
and made more splendid the church of St. Sophia. He 
closed the schools of rhetoric and philosophy at Athens 
because, as he claimed, their teachings were not friendly 
to Christianity. He carried on successful war with the 
Vandals and restored Africa to the Empire. He also recov- 
ered Italy from the Goths after many unsuccessful cam- 
paigns and in 553 it became again a part of the Roman 
Empire. In short, he was an ambitious and exceedingly 
able ruler and he is justly named as one of the greatest 
men of the Middle Ages. 

11 



GE^EBAr. HISTORY. 

The reign of the Dmperor Heraclius (610-644) is also 
noteworthy on account of certain significant events. Since 
Chosroes II., King of Persia, was overrunning and seizing 
his outlying provinces, Heraclius invaded Persia in order 
to draw him off. The desired result followed. Then Chosroes 
invaded the Roman Empire and besieged Constantinople. 
This attempt was unsuccessful and later a terrible battle 
was fought near Nineveh { 627) in which the Persian army 
was nearly annihilated. 

A few years afterwards Persia was invaded by the 
victorious Saracens. They conquered Persia and seized 
the Persian possessions of Heraclius. This was really a 
good thing for it cut off the provinces which contained the 
smallest Greek element. The remaining population of the 
Empire was made more homogeneous, more Greek, and 
was always afterwards called the Greek or Byzantine 
Empire. 

The services given by the Roman Empire in the East 
to civilization may be summed up as follows: 

(1). It served as a military outpost for European civil- 
ization against Asiatic barbarism. 

(2). It instructed the new western nations in law, in 
government and administration, in literature, in painting, 
in architecture, and in the industrial arts. 

(3 ). It kept alive the imperial principle and gave it 
back to the west in the time of Charles the Great. With- 
out it, there never would have been a Romano-German 
Empire in the west. 

(4). It was the teacher of religion and civilization to 
the Slavic races of Eastern Europe. 

the: romance nations. 
Those nations in which the Roman element predom- 
inates are called Romance nations. They are Italy, Spain, 

12 



GENERAL. HISTORY. 

and France. The Roman conquest of Britain was not 
complete so the Teutonic element prevails instead. In 
regard to the language, both Celts and Teutons adopted 
the lyatin spoken by the Roman provincials. Of course it 
soon became very much corrupted because they were 
rough, uncultured people and had no literature. In fact, 
learning fell into disrepute, being regarded as soft and 
effeminate. On account of the lack of intercommunication 
and the differences in environment, the changes were 
different in the different localities and so in course of time 
we have the three languages, distinguished as the French, 
the Spanish, and the Italian. 

The laws also were the result of the fusion of the 
Roman and Teutonic ideas. There were several ]^eculiari- 
ties in the laws of the primitive Teutons. One was that 
their punishments were different for the different classes 
of society ; that is, slaves and serfs were beaten and put 
to death when a freeman would be fined. Again, accused 
persons were regarded as guilty until they could prove 
themselves innocent. To do this, they had to submit to 

some ordeal ; if they came out of it unharmed, they were 
acquitted. The ordeal by fire made necessary the holding 
of a piece of hot iron or the walking blindfold over hot 
ploughshares ; the ordeal by water compelled the person to 
plunge his arm into boiling water or to be thrown into a 
stream or pond. In the latter case, if he floated he was 
guilty ; if he sank, innocent. The trial by combat, the 
third form of ordeal, was a duel in which, if the accused 
were the winner, he was freed from the charge against 
him. These peculiar customs lasted until the eleventh 
century, when they gradually gave way to the I^atin 
methods. 

MONASTICISM. 

The term monasticism, from a Greek word meaning 
alone, denotes a life of strict self-denial and seclusion from 

13 



OENERAr, HISTORY. 

the world in order to advance the well-being- of the soul. 
There were two classes of ascetics, the hermits, who lived 
solitary lives in desolate places, and the cenobites or 
monks, who formed communities and lived under a com- 
mon roof. 

During- the third and fourth centuries there were manjr 
monks in the east and west. This was the time when social 
conditions were about the worst possible, and these men, 
feeling them to be intolerable, g-ladly took refuge in the 
wilderness. They gradually became organized in com- 
munities with appropriate laws and the three essential 
ones of poverty, chastity and obedience. 

Although these men were withdrawn from the world, 
so to speak, they rendered very g-reat services to civiliza- 
tion. As missionaries, tliey spread the refining- and up- 
lifting influence of their religion. In accordance with their 
vow to labor, they became agriculturists, and by patient 
toil they redeemed marshy and waste lands and changed 
them into fruitful fields. Again, they became teachers 
and so spread learning. They became copyists and in 
their zeal they collected and multiplied ancient manuscripts 
which otherwise would have been lost. They were chron- 
iclers of the events of their own time. They helped the 
poor, the weary, the sick, the discouraged. Their own 
good examples did much to correct the gross social vices 
and to bring about a higher and better condition. 

These first monks were earnest and sincere, but as time 
went on certain evils arose among them. The vow of pov- 
erty was made of no effect by the gifts given the monas- 
teries and the vow of chastity came to be disregarded. And 
so when their work was done, monasticism passed out of 
favor, but their work cannot be forgotten. 

14 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

MOHAMMED AND THE SARACENS. 

The Saracens, or Arabs, "Children of the Desert," 
have the distinction of having never been subdued as a 
nation by a foreign conqueror. They are hospitable, gen- 
erous, faithful. Before the time of moliamined, their 
religion was a mixture of fetichism and star-worship. 
Kven then, Mecca was the center of their religious life for 
there was situated the ancient shrine of the Kaaba where 
there were three or four hundred idols and a black stone 
said to have been given by an angel to Abraham. 

It was during a time of great religious unrest that 
Mohammed appeared. This partly accounts for the rapid- 
ity with which his teachings spread. His story is a peculiar 
one. He was born in Mecca A. D, 570 and belonged to the 
tribe of the Koreish, the custodians of the shrine of the 
Kaaba. He was very religious. During the fast of Ram- 
adan (a month for meditation and prayer), he would with- 
draw from his family and from the world to a cave on Mt. 
Hira. It was in his seclusion here, he claimed, that he 
received certain visions and was told to proclaim his reve- 
lation. His wife was his first convert and in three years 
he gained only forty converts. 

In 622 the Koreish, becoming jealous, began to perse- 
cute him so that he fled from Mecca and came to Medina. 
This flight (tlie Hegira) was regarded by his followers as 
so important that they adopted the date as the beginning 
of a new era. 

At Medina there was little organization and the people 
were continually quarreling among themselves. This was 
Mohammed's opportunity. In a short time he became 
legislator, judge, and even king. He gave them a charter 
or constitution which brought about political unity ; he 

15 



OENEBAti HISTORY. 

gave them the Koran which brought to them religious 
unity. 

As soon as he could conveniently do so, he began to 
subdue the neighboring tribes. In 624 he fought with 
people from Mecca and was successful (the Battle of Bedr). 
About this time he gave his followers the revelation which 
had so great an influence upon their military successes. — 
"And those who are slain in God's cause, their works shall 
not go wrong ; He will make them enter paradise which 
He has told them of." On account of the hostility of the 
Jews, he expelled two or three clans from the country and 
in 632 he captured Mecca. This was a great victory, for it 
brought to him as converts and followers almost all the 
Arabian tribes. He then sent ambassadors to Heraclius 
and to Chosroes II. of Persia demanding their allegiance 
to "the apostle of the only God." Thus was started the 
career of foreign conquest, but Mohammed died soon after 
(in 632). 

The chief doctrine of Mohammedanism or Islam (which 
means submission to God) was the unity of God. Then 
there were four cardinal virtues: (1) Prayer (must be 
five times a day with the face towards Mecca); (2) alms- 
giving ; (3) keeping the fast of Ramadan; (4) a pilgrim- 
age to Mecca if possible. To the virtuous was promised a 
heaven filled with every sensual delight, with flowers and 
fruits and bright-eyed Houris. Bvil-doers and unbelievers 
were to be punished with a hell filled with the worst kinds 
of torment. Besides the Koran, there is the Sunna, which 
is a collection of Mohammed's sayings, practices, and 
decisions handed down from his immediate companions. 

The father-in-law of Mohammed, Abu Bekr, was chosen 
as his successor (Caliph). In a little while he was ready 
to carry on the foreign conquests planned by Mohammed. 

16 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

After suppressing revolts in Arabia he sent his armies 
into Syria and Palestine. Heraclius was unable to defend 
Jerusalem and it was captured, 637. The terms of sur- 
render, which were always the same, were as follows: 

(1). The Christians could build no new churches. 

(2). The religious Houses were to be open to the 
Moslems. 

( 3) . Christians must stand in the presence of a Moslem. 

(4). They could not wear the same kind of sandals or 
turbans as the believers. 

(5). They should not use saddles. 

(6). Could not employ the Arabic language in their 
inscriptions. 

(7). Could not display the cross. 

(8). Could not ring the bells of their churches. 

After conquering Syria, they passed to Asia Minor, 
subdued most of it, and fitted out vessels to attack the cities 
along the shores of the Mediterranean. By 641 all of Persia 
had submitted to their authority and they had overrun 
Central Asia and converted many of the nomadic tribes. 
Kgypt was conquered in 640 and the famous library at 
Alexandria burned. Then they advanced through North- 
ern Africa to the Straits of Gibraltar. They were admitted 
into Spain through some treachery. At the battle of Xeres 
(711), Roderic, the last of the Visigothic kings, was de- 
feated and in a few months the whole peninsula was con- 
quered. In 732 they pushed across the Pyrenees and were 
met at Tours by Charles Martel. Their defeat at Tours 
and their failure to take Constantinople, saved Europe to 
Christianity and the consequent civilization. 

The Golden Age of the Caliphate was reached during 
the eighth and ninth centuries. Bagdad, the capital, was 
made a splendid city with beautiful buildings. It also be- 

17 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

came a center of learning where the arts and sciences 
flourished. The culture and magnificence of this court 
form quite a striking contrast to the courts of Western 
IJurope at the same time. In fact, civilization owes a great 
deal to the Saracens. At a time when the western nations 
were too ignorant to know the value of such things, they 
took up and, in some cases, improved the scientific works 
of the Greeks and Persians, and gave them back to the 
Europeans when they were ready for them. 

In regard to the general effects of Mohammedanism, it 
is said that it has had a good effect only upon people in the 
lowest state of civilization. Certain of its doctrines pre- 
vent its followers from reaching a very high plane. Polyg- 
amy and divorce are permitted and so the sacredness of 
family life is destroyed. It permits slavery and encourages 
religious intolerance. It teaches fatalism and so discour- 
ages effort and enterprise. So that the Mohammedan 
lands today are far behind the christian countries in civil- 
ization. 

TH^ RISB OI*' THS PAPAIy POWER. 

It is claimed by som.e people that from the beginning 
the Church had an organized system. It can be neither 
proved or disproved, but it is certain that there was such a 
system in the fourth century. There were then, and con- 
tinued to be four grades of Bishops — country, city, metro- 
politan (of the capital or chief city of a province), and the 
patriarchs. There were five patriarchates — Rome, Con- 
stantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. Rome 
soon gained supremacy over the others, for people were 
slow in losing the idea that Rome was the most important 
city in the world. Then St. Peter himself, they said, 
founded the Church of Rome. When the capital was re- 
moved to Constantinople, the Bishop was the most im- 

18 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

portant man in Rome, and as the Umperor was so far awaj' 
people came to the Bishop for all sorts of things. Above 
all, the Pope was the defender of the people during the bar- 
barian invasions, so they came to have more respect for 
him than they did for the Umperor. 

In the eighth century, an important dispute arose in 
regard to the use of images in the Church. In 754, a con- 
cil was called at Constantinople, which decided that **all 
visible symbols of Christ, except in the Kucharist, are 
either blasphemous or heretical; image-worship is a cor- 
ruption of Christianity and a revival of paganism; all such 
monuments of idolatry should be broken or erased." 
Those who supported this decree were called Icoq^oclasts 
(image breakers). I^eo, the Isaurian, was especially zeal- 
ous, and after he had cleared the eastern churches of im- 
ages, sent a decree to the west, that the same thing should 
be done there. But the Bishop of Rome, Pope Gregory II, 
not only refused to obey, but went so far as to excommu- 
nicate the Emperor and all the Iconoclastic Churches from 
communion with the true Catholic Church. They were 
never afterwards re-united. 

This quarrel with the Church of the Kast, led to the 
friendship of the Popes and Frankish Princes, and helped 
materially the growing power of the Popes. This power 
was still further increased by two successful forgeries — the 
Donation of Constantine, and the False Decretals. The 
first set forth the statement that Constantine bestowed up- 
on the Popes the temporal, as well as the spiritual, sover- 
eignty of Italy. The second was a statement to the effect 
that the Popes in the second and third centuries, had all 
the authority claimed by them in the ninth century. 



19 



GENERAL. HISTORY. 
OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

(FlIfTH PAPER.) 

1. Name the leading Barbarian Kingdoms that were 
founded in Western I^urope. 

2. Give the date and tell theamportance of the Coun- 
cil of Whitby. 

3. Why is King Alfred called "the Great?" 

4. Tell how the Mayors of the Palace became Kings 
of the Franks. 

5. Why is the Battle of Tours mentioned as one of the 
most important battles ever fought? 

6. Give the cause and the result of Charles the Great's 
(Charlemagne) expedition against the lyombards. 

7. When was the Empire of the West restored? 

8. EJxplain the Administrative system of Charles the 
Great. 

9. Give the date and terms of the Treaty of Verdun. 

10. In what ways is the reign of Justinian like the 
reign of lyouis XIV of France? 

11. What was the most important work of Justinian? 

12. What were the services which the Roman Umpire 
of the Kast gave to civilization? 

13. Explain the origin of the French, Spanish, and 
Italian languages. 

14. Account for the founding of the Monastic Orders. 

15. What does Civilization owe to the Mohammedans? 

16. Explain how the Bishop of Rome gained supremacy 
over the other Bishops. 

17. Who were the Iconoclasts? 

18. (i..What were the "Donation of Constantine," and the 
"False Decretals?" 

19. How did the Popes gain temporal power? 

20. What period is called **The Dark Ages?" Why is 
it so called? 



20 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 

(FIFTH PAPER.) 

"To convey light into the intelligence of another, it is fir-t 
necessary to have produced the light within one's self." 

JUDICIAI, DEPARTMENT. 

Article III. Section I. — The judicial power of the United 
States shall be vested in one Supreme Courts and in such in- 
ferior courts as the Congress may from, time to time ordain 
and establish. The judges^ both of the Supreme and infe- 
rior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and 
shall, at stated tim.es, receive for their services a compensa- 
tion which shall not be diminished during their continuance 
in office. 

The Supreme Court is expressly provided for in this 
clause, but the establishment of inferior courts is left to 
Congress. In 1789 Congress established Circuit Courts and 
District Courts, in 18SS a Court of Claims, and in 1891 the 
Circuit Courts of Appeal. 

All judges of United States Courts are appointed by 
the President to serve during good behavior, which practi- 
cally means for life. There is one Chief Justice of the 
Supreme Court and eight Associate Justices. The Chief 
Justice receives $10,500 per year; the Associate Justices 
$10,000 each. There are two Circuit Judges for each of 
the nine circuits. The salary of a Circuit Judge is $6,000 
a year. There is a District Judge for each of the sixty-six 
judicial districts into which the country is divided. The 
salary of a District Judge is $5,000 a year. Many-pf the 
states comprise each a single district, many are divided 
into two districts, arid two. New York and Texas, include 
three each. 



The secure tenure of ofi&ce and the liberal salaries re- 
ceived make judges of the United States courts independ- 
ent of political or other undue influences. Ejach justice of 
the Supreme Court, in addition to his work as member of 
the court, is in charge of one of the circuits, and acting 
with the circuit judges, holds the Circuit Court of Appeals. 

The purpose of the Court of Claims is to deliberate 
upon any claims against the government of the United 
States. If the court allows a claim the decision can be 
carried out only by a bill in Congress. If the claim is not 
allowed. Congress has nothing to do with it. This court 
has five judges appointed for life. 

In each judicial district there is a district attorney, a 
marshal and a clerk. 

Section II. Clause /. — The judicial power shall extend 
to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitu- 
tion, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or 
which shall be made, under their authority; — to all cases 
affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls; — 
to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; —to con- 
troversies to which the United States shall be a party; — to 
controversies between two or more States; — between a State 
and citizens of another State; — between citizens of different 
States; — between citizens of the same State claiming lands 
under grants oj different States, and between a State, or the 
citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. 

McCleary makes the following distinction between law 
and equity. "Sometimes the law provides no adequate 
remedy for a wrong. Here is the necessity for a court of 
equity. For instance, A sells his business to B, agreeing 
Qot to become a rival but immediately reopens in the next 
Dlock. B's only remedy in law is to secure damages. If 
this remedy is shown to be inadequate, a court of equity 



CIVIIi GOVERNMEXT 

will close A's store. Or if C, having- contracted to do a 
certain act for D, fails or declines to perform his part, the 
law can only award D damages ; equity will compel the 
fulfillment of the contract. I^aw is curative, equity is pre- 
ventive." 

Chief Justice Jay made the following- instructive com- 
ment upon this clause. "The judicial power extends to all 
cases affecting- ambassadors, other public ministers, and 
consuls ; because, as these officers are of foreign nations, 
whom this nation is bound to protect and treat according- 
to the laws of nations, cases affecting them ought to be 
cognizable only by national authority: 

"To all cases of admiralty and maritime juritdiction ; 
because, as the seas are the joint property of all nations, 
whose rights and privileges relative thereto are regulated 
by the laws of nations, and treaties, such cases necessarily 
belong to national jurisdiction. 

**To controversies to which the United States shall be 
a party ; because, in cases in which the whole people are 
interested, it would not be equal or wise to let any one 
State decide and measure out the justice due to others: 

"To controversies between two or more States ; because 
domestic tranquility requires that the contentions of States 
should be peacefully terminated by a common judiciary, 
and because, in a free country, justice ought not to depend 
upon the will of either of the litigants:' 

"To controversies between a State and citizens of an- 
other State ; because, in case a State — that is, all the citi- 
zens of it — has demands against some citizens of another 
State, it is better that she should prosecute their demands 
in a national court than in a court of the State to which 
those citizens belong, the danger of irritation aud crimina- 



CIVrL GOVERNMENT 

tions arising" from apprehensions and suspicions of par- 
tiality being thereby obviated: 

"To controversies between citizens of the same State 
claiming lands under grants of different States ; because, 
as the rights of the two States to grant the land are drawn 
into question, neither of the two States ought to decide the 
controversy: 

**To controversies between a State or the citizens 
thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects ; because, 
as every nation is responsible for the conduct of its citi- 
zens toward other nations, all questions touching the jus- 
tice due to foreign nations or people ought to be ascertained 
by and depend upon national authority." 

According to the Eleventh Amendment no suit may be 
brought against a State by citizens of another State, or by 
citizens or subjects of any foreign state. The State may 
be plaintiff, but not defendant in a suit between the State 
and an individual. If the legislature does not see fit to 
allow a claim, held against the State by a citizen, there is 
no recourse. 

The national courts do not extend to the Territories. 
They have special courts which are not a part of the judi- 
cial system of the United States. 

Clause 2. — In all cases affecting' ambassadors, other pub- 
lic ministers and consuls, and those in which a State shall be 
party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. 
In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court 
shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with 
such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress 
shall make. 

Over the cases mentioned in the first part of this 
clause, the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction, that 
is, they must be begun in that court ; and, as there is no 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

higher court to which these cases can be appealed, they 
must be ended in this court. 

In the other cases, mentioned in the preceding- clause, 
the Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction, that is, those 
cases may come to the Supreme Court from a lower court 
by appeal but may not have their first trial in the Supreme 
Court. 

The Circuit Court of Appeals was organized to take 
from the Supreme Court much of the burden of its appel- 
late work and most cases appealed from the District or 
Circuit Courts are settled in that court. 

Some cases may begin only in the District Court, some 
only in Circuit Court, and some in either. ^ 

A crime committed on the high seas would be tried in 
the U. S. District Court of the district where the ship first 
lands. Criminal cases, also, which are in violation of 
United States law, but which are not capital offenses, and 
bankruptcy cases are under the jurisdiction of this court. 

In civil suits, in which the disputed sum is $2,000 or 
more, and which involve citizens of different States, the 
United States Circuit Court has original jurisdiction. This 
court also has jurisdiction over the infringement of pat- 
ents and copyrights. 

Clause S'—The trial oj all -crimes, except in cases of 
impeachment, shall be by Jury, and such trial shall be held in 
the State where the said crimes shall have been committed ; 
but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be 
at such place or places as the Congress may by law have 
directed. 

The right of trial by jury originated early in the his- 
tory of England and has ever since been regarded as one 
of the greatest guarantors of individual liberty. In cases 
of impeachment, as has been said, the Senate is the jury. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

In a civil case the trial may be before a jury or simply 
before the judge, according to the desire of the disputants. 

It is advantageous to the accused person to be tried in 
the State where the crime was committed. He is near to 
his friends and his witnesses do not have to be transported 
to a great distance. 

Crimes are not committed in any State when they are 
committed in the Territories, or in the District of Colum- 
bia, or in the Indian reservations, or in the forts or arsenals 
of the United States or on the high seas. Congress has 
made special provisions for the trial of crimes committed 
in these places. 

Section III, Clause /. — 'I reason against tht tjnited 
States shall consist only in levying war against thenty or in 
adhering to their enemies^ giving them aid and comfort. 

Treason had been variously defined in England, and 
loosely defined, so that it had been possible at times for 
the sovereign to inflict great cruelty, in the name of trea- 
son, for offenses which were not treasonable in their nature. 
Therefore the framers of the Constitution realized the 
importance of defining treason simply and definitely. 

The Supreme Court has interpreted this definition to 
mean that there can be no treason without war. To plan 
against the government is wrong, but it is not treason. To 
be a traitor one must either make war, or assist those who 
make war, against the United States. 

The following circumstance, related by Andrews, is of 
interest in this connection. * 'During the civil war<two 
steamers belonging to a steamship company had been 
seized for the rebel service. Subsequently payment was 
offered for them to the agent of the company, when he was 
informed by the government that the acceptance of pay- 



CrVIL GOVERNMENT 

ment from the rebels would be treated as an act of treason 
against the United States." 

Clause 2, — No person shall be convicted of treason^ unless 
on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on 
confession in open court. 

The fact that treason is such a heinous offense is all 
the more reason that the testimony against a person 
charged with it should be sufficient ; there must be at least 
two witnesses. The act must be an overt, that is, an open, 
real act, not simply a plan. If there is confession it must 
be in open court. In a private confession the one claiming 
to have listened to it might misrepresent the accused. 

Clause 3.— The Congress shall have power to declare the 
punishment of treason ; but no attainder of treason shall work 
corruption of bloody or forfeiture^ except during the life oj 
the person attainted. 

The word attainder means stain. It formerly meant 
a stain of punishment, that carried with it a forfeiture of 
all civil rights. Formerly, in England and some other 
countries, the person convicted of treason was tortured in 
a fearful manner till death came as a welcome relief to his 
sufferings. But the punishment did not end here. The 
traitor's relatives were not allowed to inherit his property, 
and so were punished for a crime of which they were 
wholly innocent. 

Our Constitution plainly forbids such injustice. Con- 
grisa is granted the power to punish traitors ; and, under 
trhls ittthority, it passed, in 1790, an act naming death by 
haufflng as the sole punishment. Congress might have 
provided for corruption of blood and forfeiture of property 
••during the life of the person attainted," but preferred 
not to do so. 



CIVIL. GOVERNMENT 

GENERAI, PROVISIONS. 

Article IV, Section I. — Full faith and credit shall bi 
given in each State to the public acts^ records^ and judiciai 
proceedings of every other State; and the Congress may by 
general laws prescribe the manner in which such actsy records^ 
and proceedings shall be proved^ and the effect thereof 

The public acts, or • laws ; the records of matters suchj 
as wills, marriag-es, deeds, etc.; the judicial proceedings,! 
that is, the proceeding-s and decisions of courts, of on< 
State must be recognized as valid in other States. A de- 
cree of divorce, obtained in a State where the divorce laws 
are not rigid, is binding over the parties to the decree^;] 
when they pass into a State where the divorce laws are| 
rigid. 

Congress has enacted that an act of a legislature is| 
proved, that is, shown to be authentic, when the State seal| 
is known to have been affixed to it. An act of a court must^ 
be recognized as authentic if the seal of the court is affixed, 
and the clerk of the court vouches for it over his signature, 
and the judge certifies it. 

If it were not for this clause of the Constitution, the 
lives of those who pass from State to State might be en- 
compassed by grave perplexities, and even dangers to per- 
sonal liberty. 

Section //. Clause i. — The -citizens of each State shall 
he entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the 
several States. 

In order to find a definition of the word **aiti*.en," wt 
must refer to the Fourteenth Amendment, which says, 
"All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and 
subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the 
United States and of the State wherein they r«side.»* 

8 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

The ^'privileges and immunities" are definitely enu- 
merated in the Civil Rights Bill, passed by Congress in 
1866. **It declares that all persons born in the United 
States and not subject to any foreign power, excluding 
Indians not taxed, are citizens of the United States ; and 
all such citizens, of every race and color, without regard 
to any previous condition of slavery or involuntary servi- 
tude, shall have the same right, in every State or Territory 
in the United States to make and enforce contracts, to sue, 
be parties, and give evidence ; to inherit, purchase, lease, 
sell, hold, and Convey real and personal property ; and to 
have full and equal benefit of all laws and privileges for 
the security of person and property." 

The laws of one State, defining the qualifiqp.tions of 
voters, are of no effect on other States, but this is not con- 
sidered an infringement of the rights of citizens. Such 
rules are necessary to prevent fraud. 

Clause 2. — A person charged in any State with treason, 
felony, or other crime, who shall flee fro'tn justice, and be 
found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive 
authority oj the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to 
be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. 

"The delivering up to justice of fugitive criminals by 
the authorities of one State or country to those of an- 
other," is called extradition. 

The officers in one State cannot pursue a crim- 
inal across the boundary line into another State and 
bring him back, unless, , when they capture him, as they 
have a right to do, he consents to being taken back. 
Otherwise extradition proceedings are necessary. The 
governor of the State in which the crime was committed 
makes a requisition, or formal request of the governor 
of the State to which the criminal fled, asking that the 

9 



CIVIL. OOVERyMENT 

fugitive be returned, and shp-^ing- that he is regularly 
charged with crime. The gov^srnor on whom the requisi- 
tion is made is bound by the Constitution to grant it. 
Governors have refused to grant requisitions, however, on 
the ground that the fugitive was not regularly charged 
with crime, or that, because of local prejudice he would not 
receive justice. The Constitution does not seem to sup- 
port them in this. 

In order to have extradition between two countries, a 
special treaty on that subject must be made by them, speci- 
fying crimes for which fleeing criminals may be extradited. 
Most civilized countries have such treaties with the United 
States. In an extradition treaty, only those acts which 
are considered criminal in both of the countries concerned, 
are mentioned as extraditable. 

Clause 3, — No person held to service or labor in one 
State, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in 
consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged 
from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim 
of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. 

This clause has no force now, except as it might apply 
in a slight degree to apprentices, because it related especi- 
ally to the return of fugitive slaves. 

The act of 1793, and the amendment to it passed in 
1850, provided for the enforcing of this clause. Much bit- 
terness of feeling was aroused because those who sympa- 
thized with the runaway slaves were bound by law to assist 
in returning them to their masters. 

Section III. Clause i. — New States may be admitted by 
the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed 
or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State; nor any 
State be formed by the junction of two or more States, or 
parts of States, without the consent of the legislatures of the- 
States concerned as well as of the Congress. 

10 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

New States may be formed from territory belonging to 
the Union, but Congress is not compelled by this clause to 
do so. Neither can Congress admit a Territory to state- 
hood without its consent. Territories are always eager to 
become States. 

It is clearly shown by this clause that the boundary 
lines of a State may not be changed with the result of 
either enlarging or diminishing it, without the consent of 
the legislature of the State. 

Clause 2. — The Congress shall have power to dispose oj 
and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the 
territory or other property belonging to the United States; 
and nothing in this Constitution shall be so constf%ed as to 
prejudice any claims of the United States y or of any partic- 
ular State, 

E^vidently Congress has supreme control over all terri- 
tory acquired by the United States whether by conquest, 
cession, or purchase. This control may be exerted by pro- 
viding for a temporary form of government, such as 
military rule, or by the form of government granted to the 
Territories, and intended to last only until there shall 
have been development sufficient to warrant the conferring 
of statehood. 

The second part of this clause was intended as a con- 
cession to certain States, which, at the time the Constitu- 
tion was adopted, claimed certain territory lying outside 
of their limits. 

Section IV, — The United States shall guarantee to every 
State in this Union a republican form of gov eminent ^ and 
shall protect each of them against invasion ^ and on applica» 
lion of the legislature^ or of the executive {when the legis* 
lature cannot be convened) against domestic violence, 

11 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

If the governmental control of a State should get into 
the hands of a few men, through political chicanery, it 
would be in reality an aristocracy, and it would be the 
duty of the general government to interfere and restore 
the republican form, the government by all the people in- 
stead of the government by the few. 

There is perhaps no danger that a State may volun- 
tarily choose a form of government out of harmony with 
the national form, but if it should the United States gov- 
ernment would insist on a restoration of the republican 
form. 

The nation, in protecting itself against invasion, would 
of course have to protect the individual States. 

Disturbances within a State are supposed to be put 
down by forces belonging to the State or to parts of it. 
But, as was said in the discussion of the sheriff's duties, if 
the sheriff cannot cope with a local disturbance, he may 
call on the governor of the State for the state militia and 
if this is not powerful enough the legislature or governor 
may call on the President of the United States for the reg- 
ular troops. The President is not supposed to interfere in 
the "family troubles" of a State unless called upon. 

POWER OF AMENDMENT. 

Article V,—The Congress^ whenever two-thirds of both 
houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to 
this Constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of 
two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for 
proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid 
to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when 
ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several 
States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one 
or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Con- 
gress; provided that no amendment which may be made prior 

12 



CIVIL, GOVERNMENT 

to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any 
manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section 
of the first article; and that no State^ without its consent^ 
shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 

An amendment may be proposed by Congress, t,wo- 
thirds of both houses concurring-. The proposed amend- 
ment is then sent to the legislatures of the different States 
for ratification. As soon as three-fourths of the States 
have ratified it, it becomes effective. All of the fifteen 
amendments adopted were proposed and ratified by this 
method. 

The other method has thus far been unused. By it the 
amendment is first proposed by a convention called by 
Congress after the legislatures in two-thirds of the several 
States have voted in favor of such convention. The amend- 
ment must then, as in the other method, be ratified by 
the legislatures or special conventions in three-fourths of 
the States. 

The student should read, in this connection, "the first 
and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first Article," 
in order to understand the limitations to the power of 
amendment. 

The smaller States were afraid that their right to equal 
representation in the Senate might be taken away from 
them, by an amendment to the clause, which provides that 
there shall be two senators from each State. 

The last sentence of Article five makes such an amend- 
ment impossible. 

When Congress proposes an amendment it need not be 
sent to the President for his approval, though, in a few 
instances, this has been done. 

The reason for this is, that the amendment is not an 
ordinary act of Congress, it requires a two-thirds vote, 

13 



-/.m 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

which is sufficient to pass it over the President's veto 
and it is referred for approval to the legislatures of three- 
fourths of the States, an authority higher than that of the 
President. 

MISCKIyl/ANKOUS PROVISIONS. 

Article VI. Clause i. — All debts contracted, and engage- 
ments entered into, before the adoption of this Constitution, 
shall be as valid against the United States under this Consti- 
tution, as under the confederation. 

A nation would have no more right to abrogate its 
debts and agreements, on changing its form of govern- 
ment, than partners in a business would have, upon the 
adoption of new rules in connection with their business. 

Without the insertion of this clause the government 
would have been responsible for its debts and other obli- 
gations; by making the statement, explicitly, it simply 
published its good intentions. 

Clause 2. — This Constitution, and the laws of the United 
States which shall be made in pursuance thereof; and all 
treaties m,ade, or which shall be m,ade, under the authority 
of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; 
and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any 
thing in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary 
notwithstanding. 

By this clause, the fact that the national government 
is supreme over all other divisions of government within 
the nation, is definitely stated. Congress, in making 
laws, is subject to the Constitution. The state legislatures, 
in making laws, are subject to the Constitution of the 
United States, to the laws passed by Congress, and to the 
State constitution. The State constitutions, in turn, must 
not conflict with the laws or Constitution of the nation. 

14 



CIVIL, GOVERNMENT 

Ivocal reg-ulations, such as city ordinances, are subject 
to State law and so are indirectly subject to national law. 

Clause 3. — The senators and representatives before men- 
tioned y and the members of the several State legislatures, and 
all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States 
and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirma- 
tion to support this Constitution; but no religious test shall 
ever be required as a qualification to any office or public 
trust under the United States. 

The legislative, executive and judicial officers of the 
United States, and of the several States, are properly re- 
quired to swear or affirm that they will support the national 
Constitution. The first law, passed by Congress iinder the 
Constitution, prescribed the form of this oath, as follows: 
**I, A. B., do solemnly swear, or affirm (as the case may 
be), that I will support the Constitution of the United 
States." 

Religious tests and requirements had been abundant 
in European countries ; this country was settled by those 
who desired to escape just such evils as those ; any relig- 
ious test would, therefore, be inconsistent with the basal 
principles on which our government rests. 

RATIFICATION OF THE CONSTITUTION. 

Article VII. — The ratification of the conventions of nine 
States shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Consti- 
tution between the States so ratifying the same. 

Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the 
States present, the seventeenth day of Septem-ber, 
in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hun- 
dred and eighty-seven, and of the independence 
of the United States of Am^erica the twelfth. 
In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our 

nafnes. 

GEORGE WASHINGTON, 

President, and Deputy from, Virginia. 
15 






CIVIL OOVEByMENT 

The Constitution was to be considered adopted as soon 
as nine states, two-thirds of the whole number, had 
adopted it. 

The convention which drafted the Constitution recom- 
mended to Congress that the ratification should be by con- 
ventions in the several States. This method was adopted. 
The States ratified in the following order: Delaware, Penn- 
sylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, Connecticut, Massachu- 
setts, Maryland, South Carolina, and New Hampshire, 
which was the ninth State. When this number had rati- 
fied, Congress proceeded to plan for the change of govern- 
ment. 

After some delay Virginia and New York ratified. 
North Carolina followed, more than a year later, and last 
of all came Rhode Island nearly two years after the requi- 
site number had ratified, and after Congress had taken 
steps to compel her to come into the fold. 

If Rhode Island had persisted in her refusal to ratify, 
would she have been a separate nation? The clause under 
discussion says, that when nine States shall have ratified 
the Constitution it shall be established "between the 
States so ratifying the same." It seems to shut out those 
refusing to ratify. 

In discussing this, Farrar says: *'Both Rhode Island 
and North Carolina were compound parts of the nation, 
and no practical statesman will admit for a moment that 
they could have been permitted, by a permanent refusal to 
take part in the new government, to constitute themselves 
independent foreign nations in the heart of the Republic." 

Thus was adopted the greatest governmental instru- 
ment the world has ever known. The words of Mr. Glad- 
stone, in praise of it, are not too extravagant. He said: 
"As far as I can see, the American Constitution is the 

16 



CIVIL. GOVERNMENT 

most wonderful work ever struck off at one time by the 
brain and purpose of man." Another EJng-lishman, Mr. 
Froude, made this comment upon the Union: "The prob- 
lem of how to combine a number of self-governed commun- 
ities into a single commonwealth, which now lies before 
Englishmen who desire to see a federation of the Empire, 
has been solved and solved completely, in the American 
Union. The bond which, at the Declaration of Independ- 
ence, was looser than that which now connects Australia 
and England, became strengthened by time and custom. 

The attempt to break it was successfully resisted by 
the sword, and the American Republic is, and is to continue 
so far as reasonable foresight can anticipate, %ne and 
henceforth indissoluble." 




17 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 



OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

(FIFTH PAPER.) 

1. Under what authority have United States courts 
been established? What classes of judges are there? 

2. What is the purpose of the Court of Claims? 

3. "^isting-uish between law and equity. 

4. To what cases does the judicial power of the United 
States extend? 

5. In what cases has the Supreme Court original 
jurisdiction? 

6. Why were the Circuit Courts of Appeal formed? 

7. What is treason? What punishment has been pro- 
vided for it? 

8. What force have the laws, records, and judicial 
proceedings of one State, in the other States? 

9. What is meant by extradition? 

10. Upon what does extradition between nations 
depend? 

11. How may new States be formed? 

12. What form of government is guaranteed to the 
States? 

13. How are amendments proposed and adopted? 

14. Discuss the supremacy of the national government. 

15. Were the States unanimously in favor of the Con- 
stitution? Reasons for your answer. 

16. What was Gladstone's estimate of the Constitution? 



18 



DIDACTICS. 

(FIFTH PAPE)R. ) 

In the last paper we discussed the teaching- of reading- 
and its importance in the course of study. This paper will 
be devoted to the teaching- of I^anguage and Grammar, 
their relative importance and place in the curriculum, and 
to methods in teaching-. 

To be able to use g-ood English in written and oral 
communications is a power that goes far toward making 
one successful in life and it is because of this fact that the 
subject of language is receiving more and more attention 
in our schools. 

How Acquired. There are three ways of acquiring 
the use of good language and hence three methods of 
teaching language. The child acquires the power to use 
good language by hearing others use it, second, by reading 
good literature, and, third, by using it in oral and written 
compositions. The first of these ways is perhaps the most 
important for through it the child learns to use language, 
and if it hears correct language from infancy it will not 
need to be taught by any other method. The tendency of 
the child to imitate is very marked and furnishes the 
teacher with the best possible cue as the method of teach- 
ing the subject. The teacher should strive to use correct 
language at all times, should see that the pupils have 
before them at all times only the best models in the form 
of good literature. This literature the pupils will uncon- 
sciously imitate in their conversations and thus acquire the 
use of good language. The second method, reading, is 
of much value in increasing the vocabulary of the pupil as 

1 



DIDACTICS. 

well as in giving good models for imitation. The third 
method, constant practice in writing and speaking in both 
oral and written compositions is necessary in order to fix 
in the pupil's usage what he has seen or heard. It must be 
constantly borne in mind that the pupil can do very little 
thinking for himself, and hence it is incumbent upon the 
teacher to furnish him the thought. This is best done by 
having him reproduce stories told or read to him by the 
the teacher, by showing him pictures and getting him to 
tell or write what he sees in the picture. Hence it comes 
that the work in language should be closely correlated with 
the work in reading and also with the daily life of the 
pupils. The teacher should remember that a child does 
not learn to use good language by the study of technical 
grammar; and never fall into the fatal error of having 
children learn a great number of rules which, instead of 
making them free and easy in their language, will make 
them slow and hesitating. L/anguage, while it should 
correlate with grammar, should be looked upon as a distinct 
and separate study. The tendency of the child to imitate 
is what helps the teacher most in teaching language and 
the method to be used by the teacher is to have tlae pupils 
see, hear, and use good language. 

, GRAMMAR. 

The office of technical grammar is two-fold — first, it 
teaches the child to understand the language when he 
hears or sees it and, second, it gives him a form of mental 
discipline not provided elsewhere in the elementary school 
course. For the study of grammar the sentence is the 
natural basis, for if the pupil learns to understand fully 
the sentence, he is able to understand the language. There 
are two common methods of teaching grammar. By one 
the pupil learns by the building process. He makes sen- 



DIDACTICS. 

tences, phrases, clauses, etc.; he uses nouns, infinitives, 
verbs, etc., and thus learns to know and understand them. 
This method is called the synthetic method, and is 
the more popular because it brings into use language in 
making sentences and paragraphs. The other method 
begins with the constructed sentence and by taking it 
apart and studying it, the pupil learns to understand the 
sentence. This method is called the analytic. Neither 
of these methods should be used to the exclusion of the 
other, but it seems to the writer that by proper analysis 
more can be accomplished than by the other method. 
There are few things we learn to know by making. We 
understand a watch better by taking it apart mnd then 
putting it together than by attempting to make it. Hence 
there must be in teaching grammar much work in analysis, 
but it should be remembered that just as much grammar 
can be learned from the analysis of sentences taken from 
good literature as from ''choppy" made to order sentences, 
and that by the use of good literature we improve the lan- 
guage of the pupil. Most analysis should be oral, but 
sometimes it is best to have some written work, and then 
it is that the use of the diagram comes in. Many teachers 
have no use for the diagram and make all sorts of fun of 
it. The function of the diagram is to show by means of 
lines whether or not the pupil understands the sentence 
and for this purpose it is certainly very valuable. No one 
can diagram a sentence correctly without thinking and 
there is no quicker way of testing a large class than by 
sending them to the board to diagram the sentences in the 
lesson. The diagram, then, has its place in the teaching 
of grammar and used with moderation becomes a very 
valuable adjunct. 



DIDACTICS. 

CLASS TEACHING. 

In the g-ood old days there was no such thing- as class 
teaching. The teacher taught each pupil as an individual 
in the ungraded school, or he was the tutor of the rich 
man's sons and as such became the companion of his 
pupils, good results were obtained, but in these days such 
methods are out of the question. The vast majority of 
men are not able to hire private tutors for their children* 
and so the public school with its class recitation has come 
and the teacher who cannot teach a lesson to the whole 
class so that each individual will get the full lesson had 
better seek another vocation. Now it may be that the 
amount of instruction imparted in the lesson is not suffic- 
ient or it may be that some learn much more than others. 
Some of the causes for these results will now be noted. 

Thus far in our talk on class teaching we have pointed 
out some of the common faults, and in so doing have sug- 
gested the remedy. Now we shall call attention to a few 
things which will help to bring about good results in class 
teaching. 

^Emulation. — Of late years there has been a tendency 
to decry emulation in all school work and while this ten- 
dency has some good arguments in its support, yet I 
believe there is a safe middle ground for the teacher to 
hold in which the dangers incident to the radical spirit of 
emulation and the prosy listlessness due to the lack of it 
are avoided. The emulation which sets a goal which only 
one can reach is dangerous, but the spirit of competition 
which sets a goal which all who try hard enough can at- 
tain is wholesome. For just as soon as the boy enters life 
upon leaving school he meets competition. How much 
better is it then for him to have already been in competi- 
tion? Then let the teacher of a class create a wholesome 



DIDACTICS. 

spirit of emulation among- the members of her class and 
she is sure of interest and also sure of success. 

Preparation. — As collective teaching is so important 
and yet so difficult, it follows that the teacher should 
always prepare her lessons before she gives them. No 
teacher, however skillful and well informed she may be, 
can do so well without preparation as with it, and cer- 
tainly the young and inexperienced teacher cannot do 
satisfactory work without the most careful preparation. 
We might as well expect to find a preacher who presents 
himself before his audience without thinking of his ser- 
mon, or a lawyer who goes before a jury to argue a case 
without a brief, as to find a teacher who attempts "^o give a 
lesson without preparation. One of the best preventives 
to the growth of a stereotyped, unvarying and consequently 
wearisome style which follows a lengthy experience in 
teaching the same classes and subjects is a conscientious 
preparation of lessons. New modes of treatment, new 
lights on difficulties, new interests and continued fresh- 
ness are among the good things that follow in the wake of 
daily preparation. By such preparation the teacher as- 
sures herself of satisfactory results. 

Patience. — Another important quality in the class 
teacher is patience. Some children are stupid, some are 
quick, others are spoiled, others are stubborn, restless and 
inattentive, but in spite of every excuse for anger, the 
teacher must be even tempered and patient, she must rule 
herself if she would rule others. 

Decision. — This quality so essential in the business 
and executive world is equally important in the teacher. 
The will power of children is weak, if it is strong in the 
teacher, control is easy. If the teacher has a clear and 
definite purpose in what she does, she is pretty sure to get 

5 



DIDACTICS. 

it done. With decision comes firmness, consistency and 
promptness, with its lack come weakness, vacillation and 
hesitation, each fatal to success in the class room. Before 
determining- upon a general course of action due care and 
thought should be exercised by the teacher, but in the 
daily routine of school work there will be many cases call- 
ing for immediate action. A boy makes a mistake which 
the teacher knows to be intended. What is to be done? 
Shall the teacher pretend not to see it? Shall a struggle 
be risked with the offender? The answer must be imme- 
diate. It must be right. Decision is the one quality 
needed in the teacher to answer it. Teachers should cul- 
tivate this quality. 

Tact. — This is another quality to be cultivated by the 
teacher. One may be well educated, may have studied 
pedagogy under the wisest teacher, yet if tact be lacking 
success in the school room is almost impossible. We may 
often, by the exercise of tact, overcome difficulties which 
without it would be insurmountable. Tact destroys fric- 
tion and bends opponents into colleagues. 

Punishments. — The infliction of punishment often 
does harm where it was intended to do good. The object 
of punishment should always be two-fold— to correct the 
evil doer, and to prevent others from falling into the same 
error. Its purpose is not to save the teacher trouble^ nor 
to relieve her feelings, but to reform the offender and to 
restore him to moral soundness. Punishment should look 
forward and not backward. The idea that a major part of 
the management of children consists in continual reproof 
and correction is no longer considered sound by up-to-date 
teachers. Harsh measures become lawful only after others 
of a mild nature have failed. If a look or a nod will cor- 
rect a fault, why use a word? Harsh penalties are fre- 

6 



DIDACTICS. 

quently remitted, leading- to uncertainty on the part of the 
pupils, and hence to poor discipline. A good teacher re 
quires little or no chastisement, no matter how light. One 
may well judge the quality of a teacher by the kind and 
number of punishments she inflicts. Punishment should 
never be regarded as a necessity. The wise teacher de- 
pends rather on a constant supply of attractive occupation, 
steady discipline, prompt noticing of the first breach of 
school rules, and the incentive of legitimate emulation. 
It is not to be denied that there are faults which must be 
summarily dealt with, but minor.def ects ought to disappear 
before the influence of wise and firm rule. 

FORMS OF PUNISHMENT. % 

Dlame. — As praise has its power and beneficent in- 
fluences among rewards, so blame may be placed among 
allowable corrections and preventives. 

The same precaution must be used with both. They 
should be used with extreme moderation. Too much praise 
fosters conceit in the pupil; too much blame makes him 
despondent. If the teacher is thoroughly respected a rep- 
rimand is always effectual in preventing wrong. 

HarslL Reproof. — The teacher's office is ever that of 
a friend and helper. His duty is to lift up to a higher 
plane of living those who have been placed under his care. 

Hence, it follows that harsh reproof should be avoided 
and the infliction of pain, bodily, or otherwise, should be a 
matter for serious consideration before being administered 
by the teacher. It often happens that a harsh, stinging 
reproof does much more harm than corporal punishment. 
It cuts deeper and rankles in the boy's breast long after 
the one who has admistered it has forgotten it. Teachers 
should not demean themselves by using sharp 
ironical, harsh reproof. 

7 



DIDACTICS. 

Private Reproof. — Remonstrating in private is al- 
ways preferred when practicable. A kind, but serious ex- 
postulation, prompted by a real desire on the part of the 
teacher to do the pupil good, will often win him and bring 
about a turning point of his life. 

If we deal gently and tenderly with feelings, those feel- 
ings become, in turn more gentle and tender, and a con- 
dition is brought about, in which the mildest reproof is 
very effective. But if we deal harshly with their feelings, 
they in turn become hardened and the harshest reproof is 
of no avail. Private reproof deprives the offender, to a 
great extent, of the support of his classmates. In cases 
where the welfare of the whole class is at stake, the reproof 
should be public. 

Public Reproof.— Open rebuke has a tendency to 
blunt the conscience and harden the heart. It tends to de- 
prive the offender of that natural pride which is the pres- 
ervative from so many youthful indiscretions. When it 
becomes necessary for a teacher to speak sternly to one or 
more pupils before others, he should be careful that his 
words are few, and have nothing of a personal nature in 
them. He should show by his words that he is more 
grieved than angered. Above all, the teacher must not 
make cutting allusions to the birth or family of a pupil. 
Nothing can be more disastrous. If there is a maxim in 
pedagogy it is, that scolding in class always does mischief. 
Such reproof is a great incentive to all in the class to take 
part in the mischief. 

Wholesale Reproof .—General reproof addressed to 
a whole class does no good, but does harm, for the pupils 
are well aware that all are not equally guilty, and see the 
injustice of the reproof and charge it up to the teacher's 
"crossness." It is a sure sign of incapacity on the part of 

8 



DIDACTICS. 

the teacher when he bursts out into blame toward his pu- 
pils as a whole, for it is a fact that the great majority 
of every class is easily controlled when well manag-ed. 
Instead of blaming his pupils, he should blame himself 
and strive to improve himself. Teachers should not make 
vague, indefinite charges to their principal against their 
classes, if they do not wish to lower themselves in their 
principal's estimation. 

Hasty Reproof. — A teacher should be on his guard 
against hasty accusations. Never should he charge chil- 
dren with dishonesty, falsehood, or any other grave fault, 
unless he has the clearest proof of their guilt. In addition to 
the harm which injustice does them, nothing n^pre surely 
alienates parents than such charges being brought against 
their children. Far better to let many faults go unnoticed 
than to accuse a single pupil falsly. A teacher should 
not punish merely because he has said he would. Be 
careful not to say what you are going to do in the mat- 
ter of punishments. But in case you make the mistake of 
saying that you intend to punish and then find it best not 
to, do not hesitate to say you have changed your mind. 
Such a course is always commendable. If the teacher is 
wrong let him be man enough to honestly admit it. This 
will win him friends and gain the confidence of his pupils. 

Corporal Punishment.— A great deal is now writ- 
ten for and against the use of the rod. We do not wish to 
assert that corporal punishment is never needed, yet, we 
do believe, that it should be used with extreme caution. 
Next to expulsion, it is the severest punishment that can be 
given a school-child. Hence, it is only in the correction of 
the worst forms of wrong doing that it should be used, and 
then only after mature deliberation. It is better than ex- 
pulsion, because the latter puts the boy out from the in- 



DIDACTICS. 

fluence of the school and deprives him of the good that 
might come to him in school. 

Suspension. — This form of punishment is severe 
only because of the humiliation that it causes the pupil 
suspended. It should be rarely resorted to. I have found 
it often wise to suspend a pupil until he should bring his 
father or mother with him for a consultation. A thorough 
understanding between teacher and father, is likely to 
prove an effective means of preventing wrong-doing on 
the part of the pupil. Suspension for a stated time is, as a 
rule, unwise, because it puts the pupil behind and is likely 
to bring him back with a desire to continue the mischief. 
All penalties which interfere with the course of study- 
should be interdicted. It is very unwise to put an unsatis 
factory pupil outside the class where he can watch all that 
is going on and be excused from work, for that is what he 
likes, and he waits for the teacher to turn him out of the 
class or room, 

WISE PUNISHMENTS. 

The best form of punishment is that which can be 
made to appear a natural consequence of the wrong-doing. 
Whenever this is the case the tables are turned on the 
offender and the chances are that he will not offend again 
in that way. Penalties which cause a loss of prestige, or 
the deprivation of some privilege open to all are always 
effective. If a child is shut out from what his companions 
are enjoying it is likely to affect him deeply and cause him 
to strive earnestly to reform. The withdrawing of a privi- 
lege, the loss of a mark, or of a place in a class, will pro- 
duce the wished for effect and correct ordinary faults. 

The best of all school punishments is the deprivation 
of some valued lesson. Teaching is a success when it 
causes extra instruction to be looked upon as a privilege 

10 




DIDACTICS. 

and the loss of it as a punishment. Strange it is that more 
teachers do not use this kind of punishment. If the teach- 
er has not thepower to make teaching attractive, he should 
not rest until he has acquired it. 

Another wholesome and effective correction is to have 
a place in the room to which an idea of disgrace is at- 
tached. This may be a table and a chair in a corner of the 
room. The pupil to be punished takes his place at the 
table, is required to listen to the lessons, but is not per- 
mitted to ask or answer a single question. This punish- 
ment, if not made too common, is very effective. 

Apology. — A pupil who has been very disobedient may 
be required to write an apology to his teacher. In spite of 
the frequent assertion that such apologies are not sincere, 
we believe that few, if any, children do wrong without be- 
ing sorry for it. 

"Whenever the conduct of a pupil is such as to disgrace 
the entire school, a good cure is to enlist the public opinion 
of the whole school against the offender. In case of faults 
that savor of meaness and cowardice, a stinging reproof is 
in place and public opinion will sustain the teacher. As a 
rule, teachers have a very inadequate appreciation of 
the power which patient love has in education. Those who 
bring to bear upon the work of teaching the whole power 
that is to be found in affection discover that there is no 
obduracy in a child's heart that can resist it. If the love 
felt by the teacher is to have this benign effect, it must be 
unselfish. If this is true, a teacher may so win the esteem 
of his pupils that all problems of discipline vanish like mist 
before the sunshine. Teachers should cultivate such a love 
and use it in their schools. 



11 



DIDACTICS. 
OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

( IflFTH PAPER. ) 

1. Distinguish between language and grammar. 

2. Which of the two is of the most importance? Why? 

3. State three ways of acquiring the use of good 
language. 

4. Which is most effective? Why? 

5. What two uses has the study of grammar? 

6. What is the best method to use in teaching gram- 
mar? 

7. When should the study of technical grammar begin? 

8. What is the difference between class and individual 
instruction? 

9. What purpose is attained by class instruction? 

10. What faults are class teachers likely to fall into? 

11. Name two or three ways of correcting these faults. 

12. How should the class teacher ask questions? 

13. What is the purpose of punishment in the school? 

14. What kind of punishment is the best? Why? 

15. When should corporal punishment be resorted to? 

16. Why is a public reproof bad? 

17. When is a public punishment necessary? 

18. What is the best means of preventing the neces- 
sity of punishment? 

19. Name two unwise punishments. 

20. Name two wise punishments. 



12 



ALGEBRA. 

(FIFTH PAPER.) 

"Our motive is always found in what we lack." 
Evoi^uTiON OF poi;ynomiai,s. 
Rule. — Square Root. — (1) Arrang-e the Polynomial 
w^ith reference to the Powers of some letter beginning with 
a perfect square. 

(2) Extract the square root of the first term, place it 
to the right as the first term of the root and subtract its 
square from the Polynomial. 

(3) To the left of the remainder place twice the root 
already found, as a trial divisor, and obtain the second 
term of the root. 

(4) Annex, with its proper sign, this new root-term to 
the trial divisor, as a correction, thus forming a complete 
divisor. 

(5) Multiply the complete divisor by the last term of 
the root, subtract the product from the last remainder. 

(6) Repeat the application of sections three, four and 
five, until all the terms of the root are obtained. 

1. Find the square root of 

Ax^—\2x^-\-12>x^—(>x-{-l. Ans. 2x'^^Zx-^l. 

Model operation: 

Ax^—12x^^lZx'^—ex-\-\ I 2x'^—2>x-\-l 

4x^ 



2{2x^)=4x^= trial div. 

— 3x :=correc 
4^2 — 3^= com. div. 



-12x^+13x^ 
—\2x^-\- 9x^ 



2(2;t:2 3x)='^x^—6x=t. d 
+1 = cor. 



4,^2 — 6;ir4-l = com. d. 



4;r2— 6;ir+l 
4x^—f>x-\-l 





ALGEBRA. 




2. 


Find the square roots ot 






^x^+6^-i-9. 


Ans. X -{- 3. 


3. 


x^—Sx-\-16. 


Ans. X — 4, 


4. 


x^-{-'&x^+16xK 


Ans. x^-\-4x. 


3. 


Ax^^9x^—I2x*. 


Ans. 2^3_3^. 


6. 


x'^-\-1Qqc^—Ax^-\-9x^ — 12a;3. 


Ans. ic^— 2jb24-3x. 


7. 


—2bc+c^—2ac-^a^—2ab-\-b^. 


Ans. a— 6 — c. 


8. 


—12xyA-4x^+i+9y^+Sx—12y. 


Ans. 2x — 3^+2. 


9. 


a2^2ab+d^-{-2ac-{-2bc+c^ 


Ans. a-\-b-\-c. 


10. 


x^—Axy-\-2x-{-Ay^—Ay-\-l. 


Ans. X — 2y-\-l, 


11. 


x*+4x^y+Ay^—4x^—Sy-\-A. 


Ans. x^-{-2y — 2. 


12. 


l_4y_|_4y_j_2a;— 4x:j/2-fa;2. 


Ans. 1— 2j2-|-a;. 


13. 


4m^—1 6m^+247n^—16m +4 


Ans. 2^2— 4w-j-2. 



14. l+10a2-f-25a4-|-i6a6— 24a6— 20^3— 4fl. 

Ans. 4a^—Za^+2a—l. 

15. 4a4+4«3_i/2a+i/ie. Ans. 2a24-a-V4. 

16. 9x4+3x2;/+2x2+V4y+V3:i^+V9- Ans. 3a;2+V2j>/+V3. 
aj6 x^ x^ 2x^ „ a;3 ajS 

17. -9-T+T-T-+^'+i- ^"«- T--2-1- 

18. 4a;4+3a;2j— 8cc2-|--^— 3j|/+4. Ans. 2a;2+^— 2. 

19. 4a2— 4— 20fl;4--a+— +25. Ans. 2a— -^—5. 

20. 256aio+8a6— 32a6^-hl6a«+/5.2+^— ^-f-^_^-|_i/4. 

Ans. I6a«+-^— ^+1/2. 

CUB^ ROOT OF POI,YNOMIAI,S 

Rule. — ( 1 ) Commencing with a perfect cube, arrange 
the Polynomials with reference to the powers of some letter. 

(2) Place the cube root of the first term to the right 
is the first term of the root, and subtract its cube from 
the Polynomial. 



ALGEBRA. 

(3) To the left of the remainder place three times the 
square of the root, as the first trial divisor, and obtain the 
second term of the root. 

(4) To the trial divisor add three times the product of 
the first and second roots, as the first part, and the square 
of the second term of the root, as the second part of the 
correction — the sum of these three parts will be the first 
complete divisor. Multiply this by the last term of the 
root and subtract the product as before. 

(5) To the last complete divisor add the first part of 
the last correction, and twice the second part. The sum 
will be the second trial divisor, with which find the third 
term of the root. Form the correction by taking three 
times the product of the first term of the root by the last 
term for the first part, and the square of the last term for 
the second part. Add the trial divisor and the two cor- 
rections. The sum will be the second complete divisor. 
So continue until all the terms of the root have been found. 

Find the cube root of m^—6mhi'\-12mn^ — 8n^. 

EJxplanation: 

nt^ — 6m^n-\-12mn^ — 8«^j | nt — 2« 
Zm^, (first trial div. m^ 



—6m^n-\-12mn^ — 8n^ First remainder. 

^ 9 , ,- 9 o Product of complete 
—6m^n-\-12mn''—8n^ divisor by the second 
— term of root. 



3m2— 6w»+4«2 
(Complete div.) 

It is plain that the first term of the root is the cube 
root of m^, the first term of the power. We place this cube 
root, w, in the root, and write its cube, m^, under m^ in the 
power. 

When this is subtracted there remains — 6m^n-\-12mn* 
— 8«3. 



ALGEBRA. 

The second term, — 2«, of this root, is obtained by di- 
viding the first term of this remainder, — 6w%, by three 
times the square of m, or Zm^, which we call our trial 
divisor. The complete divisor is formed by adding 
three times the product of this second term, — 2«, by the 
first, m, {—6mn), to the square of the second term, or 4nK 

Then this sum, 3m^—6mn-^4n^, is multiplied by the last 
term of the root, and the product, —6m^n-\-12mn^—8n^f is 
subtracted from the first remainder. Since the result is 
nothing, we have the required root. 

1. Find the cube root of 

27a3+9a+27a24-l. 

2. ic3— 12x2+48x— 64. 

3. a;6—3x« +6x4—7x3 -f 6x2— 3x+l. 

4. 8x3-f36x2j/+S4xy+27y. 

5- -8+^-+-4-+^'- 

6. riaP + 9a^ + a%'^ +~27"- 

7. a^-]r^a%-\-Za^-\-e>ab-\-Zab^-{-Za-^Zb^-^b^-\-Zb-\-l. 

Ans. a-\-b-\-\, 

8. a^—6a^-{-12a—8. Ans. a— 2. 

9. -g+-2-+662+8d^ Ans. -^+2b. 
10. a^f» -^Za^mbn -j-3^wd2« ^^3«, Ans. a»«-f-d« . 



Ans. 


3a+l. 


Ans 


. X— 4. 


Ans. X 


2-X4-1. 


Ans. 


2x+3j|/. 


Ans. 


a 


Ans, 


ab. 



AI.GEBRA. 



11. Find thecuberoot of a34-3a2^-f3a62_|_^3_}_3^2^_|.6^^^ 



f362^+3ac2_|_3^^2_^^3. 



O '^1 



CD 



=+ 



I 1+ 



w 



<>, 



!1 «. ^ 
+ 

li 8 

O (T) OJ 
S 2- ^ 

o IT. <^ 

O OJ 
O • '^ 



r^ to 

^•+ 

03 

o 
I-t 



C)~ 



> 




o. 


a 




K> W W 


^ ?i R 


rl- "> Ht ; P _i_ 


<^ •^ 


»T3 ^ 


O (B O p 


ir* "s- 


o (D r+ 1:; 


CD ba 


r' o w <-h 


•^ II 



to 

O ^ 

3 <^ 
^+ 

n 
all 

•-t 
w 



■^ o 
o o 
~— -t 

11 ^ 

II o 

W 

n 
o 
o 

t3 
O 

o 



C*J 

X 



OJ 



w 



OJ 



OJ 



01 



Cu 

B 
p 

I-t 



OJ 
+ 

ON 
<^ 

4- 

OJ 

<:>. 
ba 

+ 

OJ 

^« 
-f 

OJ 

<^ 



02 
o 
o 
o 

cu 

o 



OJ 

+ 
ON 

+ 
OJ 

I^O 
OJ 

r^ 
OJ 



OJ 

bS 



w 




o 




o 




o 




D 

p* 




« 


1^ 


O) 


r+- 


B 


13 


Pi 


•^ 


t— 


o 


p 


0» 


a 


)= 


n> 


o 


t> 


r+ 



OJ 

OJ 
Si 

<:> 

bO 

+ 



OJ 

b9 

OJ 

bS 

+ 
OJ 

bO 

+ 

ON 

OJ 

bO 

+ 
OJ 

+ 

OJ 

^> 

+ 





+ 


n 


<&- 


r*- 


+ 




II 


B 


W 


p 


o 


!-»• 
» 


o 


p. 


• 







ALGEBRA. 

RADICAI< QUANTITIES. 

A radical (radix, a root, ) is a quantity whose root is 
indicated by the radical sig-n, •/, ^, etc., or by a fractional 
exponent, %, %y etc. 

The Coefficient of a radical is the quantity placed be- 
fore the sig-n, as ^i/lab. 

The Degree of a Radical is shown by the index, or by 

the denominator of the fractional exponent, as iXa" \/^' 
or, d^l2, a^lz- 

Similar Radicals are those which have the same quan- 
tity under the same radical sign, or fractional exponent. 

A Surd is a quantity whose indicated root cannot be 

obtained, or expressed, in rational terms, as 1/27 

The Calculus of Radicals is a term used in Elementary 
Algebra to indicate the operations of Reduction, Addition, 
Subtraction, Multiplication and Division of Radicals. 

REDUCTION OP RADICAI^S— CASE 1. 

To reduce a Radical to its simplest form: 
Rule. — Separate the Radical into two factors, one of 
which is the largest perfect power of the same degree as 
the index. EJxtract the required root of this factor, multi- 
ply it by the Coefficient of the radical and annex the Surd. 
Model operation: 

l/75a%=:what? 

l/75^86V=i/25a2^2x3a7=5a^l/3aZ" 
Simplify the following: 

1. i/i08. Ans. 61/3T 

2. i/l8x2. / Ans. 3X|/2" 

3. i/288a663^2. Ans. llaHc^^l^ 

4. \/a^—a^xK Ans. ay^a~ax^ 

5. S\/SOaH. Ans. 2Ea\/2b^ 



ALGEBRA. 

6. 4j/54aV. Ans. 12at/2^ 

7. 6i/25a?-25a^. Ans. 30ai/l=^ 

8. 3l/2AaW. Ans. 6ai/3a62: 

9. 6^^48^564. Ans. 12ad t/z^. 
10. V4l/i6a3— 32a2d. Ans. ai/a—2b. 

CASE 2. 

To Change a Rational into a Radical form: 

Rule. — Raise the quantity to the same power as the 
.ndex of the radical, place the result under the radical sign, 
ind, if necessary, multiply by quantity already binder the 
radical sign. 

1. Place Za in the expression Za ^/y under the radical 
sign. 

Operation: 

Square Za; hence, ^a^'y^^. 
Multiply by ^^ 

l/9a2X i/y=i/9a2^. Answer. 

2. Reduce to the form of the square root, Aa^xy\ 

3. 8a^i/— 2. Ans. v^—12^a^l^, 

4. Reduce to form of cube root: 

4a2ay/2. Ans. l^dAa^x^cK 

Bbc^l/d'. Ans. J/ 125^ c^d, 

5. 3a^2 3/^ 6x2^3/11^ 

6. Reduce to form of square root (2a-\-d), 

Ana. i/ 4a^^4ad-j-d^, 

7. Reduce x — 2y to the form of the square root. 

Ana. i/«* — 4ay-f4y*. 

8. Reduce a^i^ to the form of the fourth root. 

Ana. ya^lW, 



ALGEBRA. 

9. Reduce '^j^a^bc to the form of the third root. 

Ans. i/'^'^f\2ba^bh^. 

10. Reduce a^ to the form of the «th root. 

Ans. T/^ama . 
CASK 3. 
To Reduce Radicals to Equivalents of the same degree: 

Rule. — Indicate the Radicals, if necessary, with frac- 
ioaal exponents. Reduce these exponents to common de- 
nominators. Raise each quantity to the power indicated 
by the numerator of its new exponent, and indicate the root 
by the denominator. 

Examples: 

1. Chang-e i/^o^ and ^/"^ to equivalents of the same 
degree. 

^~l)={ab)^lr, ^~^={a^b)'^/3. Reduce exponents Va 
and Vs to common denominator, which are three-sixths and 
two-sixths, and apply rule. Then ^^=6/^3^3^ and l/^aH 

2. Change to equivalents of same degree: 

IZ-^TO^ and f/47 ^ns. f/l,000, and J/ieT 

3. ya^y^n&l/^^. Ans. ^l/aH^^md^l/^K 

4. i/'^xjy, and ^/xyi Ans. ^l/x^y^, and ^\/x^y^. 

5. yzx^, and ^4^ Ans. 6/9^^ and f/e4^ 

6. a«, and b't. Ans. ^J/o^ and '^^^ 

7. a'^/s, and b i. Ans. ^^/a^, and ^{/PT 

8. (m+ny Is, 3.nd (x+yy/i. 

Ans. ^v'^im-^-n)*, and ^l/{x-\-y)K 



ALGEBRA. 

9. ( VI— n )73, and (m-\-n j^e 

Ans. i/'^(m—n )\ and y'^i m-\-nY. 
10. aVs \/b, fz-^^and ^74. 



Ans. 1 e-^aS 1 ^/^ 1 y^ and ^ ^^; 



;3 



Note. — It has doubtless been observed that the numerator of a 
fractional index indicates the power of the quantity to which it is at- 
tached^ and the denominator indicates the root of the power. For ex- 
ample, a% indicates the fourth root of the third power of a. 

ADDIITON OF RADICAI^S. 

Kiile.— (1) Reduce the Radicals to their Simplest 
Form, (2) Add the coefficient of similar radicals and an- 
nex the common radical. (3) Connect dissimilar radicals 
by their proper sign. ^ 

Examples: 

1. Add i/27a:2 and i/^48^. 
Model operation. First reduce: 

1/27^= y 9x2X3 =3iCi/y ) ^^ ^ 
. xAdd, 

v/4 x^ =^ v^lbx^X^ =ixy^ 3 ) 

7xj/'^3. Answer. 

2. Add i/SO^yTand y^72x^y. Ans. llxy^TyK 

3. v/l25 and i/SOOx^. Ans. (5+10x)i/5. 

4. i/l8^ i/l28, 1/32? Ans. 15i/2. 

5. ^^32; f^iosT ^^2567 Ans. 9^4: 

6. 3v^b-~ a.nd By^a^bT Ans. (35+S«)i/^5. 

7. ai/"^ and bi/^bV: Ans. (a^-{-b^)y^ 

8. ag//27^ and 3^^6467 Ans. (3^2+12)^.^^ 

9. 5^^ and ^y'^x^y. Ans. 5x2 3/^ ^435^/3;^^ 
10. ai/^i6xV and i/25x4y. Ans. {Aax-\-Sx^)^/ y, 

SUBTRACTION OF RADICAI.S. 

Rule.— (1) Subtract the Coefficient of similar radi- 
cals, and annex the common radical. (2) Connect dis- 
similar radicals by their proper sign. 



ALGEBRA. 

Examples: 

1. i/242a5^— i/2a3^. Answer, {lla^d^—ab) ■\/2aF, 

2. From 2v/25a^ take 2d]/^. Ans. 8bi/^, 

3. From 6a i/a^ take Si/a^. Ans. a^xx/x* 

4. From 6^/^ take — 55]/^. Ans. llb-[/d. 

5. From — 3i/xV take —7x}/j^. Ans. 4xyi/y. 

6. From ]/l60a^x^ take aa;i/250ax. 

Ans. — aaJi/lOaa;. 

7. From i/o^ take ]/^ Ans. C^— ^) l/?- 

8. From 5]/^ take 2i/V5r Ans. ^yui/sT 
Solution; 

2i/V^= 2i/5xW= Vei/'^ 
iVsi/S-Vsi/S =i3/i5i/5: Ans. 

9. From 3i/a2— a^d take 2ai/l—b. Ans. oti/l— 6. 



10. From ^/a^^^^^^^ad^^^^ take i/a^— 3a2^-}-3«d2_6^. 
Ans. ( a-^b ) \/{a—b )— ( a — b) \/a — b =2by'^a—b. 

MUI.TlPI,lCATlON OF RADICAI^S. 

Rule. — ( 1 ) Reduce the radicals to a common index. 
(2) Multiply the coefficients of the radicals for a new co- 
efficient. (3) Multiply the radicals for a new radical, to 
which prefix the coefficient. (4) Reduce the result to its 
simplest form. 

Example: 

1. Multiply 4i/Sa^ by 3i/2aa. Ans. VlOa^^. 

2. 3v^ by 5v/l2. Ans. 6O1/6. 

3. xi/z by y[/z. Ans. xyz. 

4. my^n by ay"^. Ans. amn. 



5. y m — n by y'^ 'm-\-n, Ans. y^ni?- — n^. 

6- \/^b ^y 1/^. Ans. y^abcd. 



10 



ALGEBRA. 

7. i/tn^ by \/n. Ans. 

8. az hy bh Ans. J/aS^s, or, {aH^yi^. 

9. p/^ by i/w. Ans. ^i/w^w', or, {ni^n^)^lz. 

10. a«« , by 6«, Ans. i/ a« o"»* ' ^ ' ««« 

11. Multiply a+]/^ by w— 1/» 
Operation ; 

m—i/n 

— ai/n — \/ bn. 



12. Multiply a — y'^ by c — \/d. 

Ans. ac — a\/d—ci/b-\-\/bd, 

13. i/7 — ]/ J by \/~c-\-\/'d, Ans. r — ^. 

14. y^a-\-i/b by v^+l/^- Ans. a+2]/'^+^. 

15. v^— l/^ by i/a— i/^' Ans. a—2i/ab-{-b. 

DIVISION OF RADICAI^S. 

Rule. — ( 1 ) Reduce all Radicals to a common index. 
(2) Divide the coefficient of the dividend by that of the 
divisor for the coefficient of the quotient. (3) Divide the 
dividend radical by that in the divisor for the radical of 
the quotient. To this fix the coefficient, and reduce the 
result, if necessary. 

Kxamples: 

1. 4a-i/^-^6bi/y, Ans. ?| J|. 

2. VUa^ by ■/4ax. -A.ns. 1/3^ 

3. Va6x2 by 3v/^^. Ans. 3i/^. 

4. Va^+ax by Va. ^^^' V a-\-x. 

11 



ALGEBRA. 

5. 12/^2^ by a/Z:^ Ans. 4/11^. 

6. 6adcy^ by 2ac^y^ Ans. 36|/^_ 

7. ISm/^ by 5/^. Ans. 3mi/^. 

8. f^Zy by f ^II^. Ans. ^^^qZ^T. 

9. Va by i-^a. Ans. Va. 



10. '^/a by 5>/a. Ans. '«^V'-/«. 

INVOI.UTION OF RADICAI^S. 
TO RAISE A RADICAI, TO ANY REQUIRED POWER. 

Rule. — (1) Express the root of the radical by using 
fractional exponents. (2) Multiply the index of the root 
by the index of the power required. (3) Prefix to this re- 
sult the required power of the coefficient. (4) Reduce to 
simplest form. 

Examples: 

1. Required the square of 3-^x. 

{^f xf={^^^)^=Z^x^ =9x^=9 f^. Ans. 

2. Find the square of 5y^, 

{5ymy={Sm\yz=S'^ml=2Sm2=25\/m. Ans. 

3. Required the cube of Ay'^m. 

(4i/^w)^=(4w2)3=43m2=64w2=64i/'m^. Ans. 

4. Find the cube of i/am. Ans. y^a^m^. 

5. Required the cube of 3i/m Ans. 27m, 

6. Find the square of Zai/a. Ans. 9aK 

a / — . 

7. Required the cube of 2y 2a. 

(|l/^)3=(|x22X«2)3=(^X2iX«2)=(^X2X22X « 
Xai)=(-^X22X«2)=-|-i//2^. Ans. 

8. Find the cube of 3-. /^. Ans. gaXi/ ^. 

12 



ALGEBRA. 

9. Required the fourth power of 2i/a^. Aas. 16a^d^. 

10. Find the cube of x/a~+b. Ans. a-\-b. 

Note,— Remove the radical sig-u or the fractional exponent to raises 
a root to a power of the sa me n ame, as in the above example the radical 
sig-n is removed to raise l^« + z> to the third power. 

KVOI.UTION OF RADICALS. 
TO EXTRACT ANY ROOT OF A RADICAI,. 

Rule. — (1 ) Express the root of the radical in the form 
of a fractional exponent. (2) Divide the fractional ex- 
ponent of the radical by the number denoting- the required 
root. (3) Prefix to this result the required root of the 
coefficient. 

Examples: 

1. Find the square root of a^i/a^b^. 

(a^l/'^a^d^ ) 2 = {a^a2b2)2=za2aidi=a^atdt=za^\/a^d^. Ans. 

2. Find the cube root of Sy"^. Ans. 2i/'^m. 

* _ 

3. Required the square root of 25^/x2. Ans. Sf/x. 

4. Find the square root of 9^/'^3x Ans. Sf/'^Sx. 

5. Find the cube root of 3ay'^3a. 

3ai/^3^ = i/'^27a3. The cube root of i/27a3=(272a2 )3 
=27 6al=l/^Z7a^. Ans. 

6. Find the cube root of Aay^fnhi^. Ans. i/^l6a^m^n^. 

7. Find the square root of V25^^. Ans. ^jbi/^a. 

8. Find the fourth root of ^1^^, Ans. zya. 

9. Find the cube root of i/243a\ Ans. a^ i/Ja^. 



P./' 



10. Find the seventh root of 128v 1024a^ 



,3 5/: 



Ans. 2 V 102-,a2. 
RATIONAI^IZING A RADICAI,. 
CASE 1. 
TO RATIONAWZE A RADICAI, MONOMIAI,. 

Rule.— Multiply the radical by the same quantity 
having- such fractional exponent as, when added to the 
fractional exponent given, the sum shall equal 1. 

13 



ALGEBRA. 

Examples: 

1. Rationalize y^. 

l/x=x^l2. Multiply by xV2, since V2+V2=l» 

Aus. X. 

2. Rationalize o^Vs. 

Multiply x^/3 by x^/s, since it is necessary to add ^/a 
to V3 to make it equal 1. Ans. x. 

3. What factor will rationalize a^/i?. Ans. 0^/4. 

4. Required a factor to rationalize i/a. Ans. i/^. 

5. What factor will rationalize i/a^c^? Ans. i/^. 

6. What will rationalize t/(a-\-d)^? Ans. l/{a-f-d)K 

7. Required a factor to rationalize i/{ x — y )^ 

Ans. Vix—yy. 

8. What factor will rationalize 1/ {x-\-y—z)^ ? 

Ans. \/(x-{-y — zY, 
CASE 2. 

TO RATIONAI^IZE) A RADICAI, BINOMIAI,. 

Hiile. — Change the connecting- sign of the correspond- 
ing binomial and multiply the given binomial by it. (This 
rule is dependent upon the principle, "the product of the 
sum of two quantites multiplied by their difference is equal 
to the difference of their squares.") 
Kxamples: 

1. Rationalize i/x-\-\/y. 

We have here the sum of two quantities. If this 
sum be multiplied by their difference, (i/^+i/5')X(l/^"" 
■\/^y)y the result is the difference of the squares of -[/x and 
■\/yj or x—y, Ans. 

2. Rationalize 1/^ — i/^3j)/. 

Multiplying {i/Zx-y/Zy) by {y'^+^/Sy) the re- 
Btilt is 2x — 3y, Ans. 

14 



ALGEBRA. 

3. "What factor will rationalize 3i/a— 2v^. 

Ans. 3i/'^-f2i/^. 

4. What will rationalize ■/«+"/ 3^? Ans. Va—VJd? 

5. Required a factor that will rationalize a-j-Vd. 

Ans. a — Vd. 
CASE 3. 
TO RATIONAI^IZE THB) NUMERATOR OR THE DENOMINATOR 
OE A RADICAI, FRACTION. 

Rule. — Multiply both numerator and denominator of 
the fraction by that factor which will rationalize the re* 
quired term. 

Examples: 

fn 

1. Rationalize the denominator of -7^. 

Vn 

m mXVn mVn 
Operation : — -7= =-7= -^^= ~ 

V n V«Xl/ w ^ ' 

/— 

2. Rationalize the numerator of — - Ans. ;„ .- . 

10 10-/a 

3. Rationalize the numerator of . Ans, 



4. Rationalize the denominator of 



X 



Va—Vb 



Ans. ^^^«+^^' 
5. Rationalize the denominator of 



a — b 
Va—Vb 



Va-\-Vb 
Ans. ^-2^^+& 



6. Rationalize the denominator of 



15 



a — b 

a ' 



a-\-Vb' 

Ans. ^11^. 
a^ — b 



ALGEBRA. 

Va 



7. Rationalize the numerator of 



Va—Vz' 

a 



Ans. 
8. Rationalize the numerator of 



a—Vc>a 
Va-^-Vb 



Va ' 

a — d 



Ans. 



-Vad 

RADICAL EQUATIONS. 

In a Radical Equation the unknown quantity is 
affected by the radical sig-n or by the fractional exponent. 

TO SOLVE A RADICAL EQUATION. 

Rule.— (1) Arrange the terms so as to have the radi- 
cal alone on one side. (2) Raise both sides to a power 
corresponding- to the root of the radical. 

Kxamples: 

1. Given "/x-(-3=9, to find x. 
Operation. — Vx-{-3=9. 

Transposing. Vx=9—3. Hence, Vx=6. 
Since 6 is equal to the square root of x, the square 
of 6, or 36, must equal the square of Vx, or x. Hence, aj=36. 

2. Given Vx^3ad=7ab, to find x. 

Transposing. Vx=7ad — 2ad. Or, Vx=4ad» 
Squaring, x=16a^b^. Ans. 

3. Given Vx^l2-\-Vx—6, to find x. 

Operation. Vx-\-l2-^\/x=6. 

Squaring, cc+12+2t/x2 + 12x4-.r=36. 

Transposing, 2\/W^\^V2x=2A—2x. 

Dividing by 2, V x^ -{- \2x=12~-x. 
Squaring, x'^-\-12x=lAA — 24x-\-x^. 
Transposing and uniting, 36x=144. 
Dividing by 36, x=4. Ans. 

16 



ALGEBRA. 

4. Given fx-\-2=2, to find x. Ans. 6. 

5. 2v''x— 2+7=9, to find x. Ans. 3. 

6. 1 / ^ =5, to find X. Ans. 225. 

7. #"05—7=3, to find x. Ans. 20. 

8. 3^a;4-5=9, to find x. Ans. 22. 

9. 5-./- =15, to find a;. Ans. 27. 

10. 2i^cc— 5=4, to find x. Ans. 21, 

11. t/4 + 5x— t/3x=2, to find x, Ans. 12. 

12. T/fla;-|-2a<5» — a=d, to find a;. Ans. — - — • 

^ 4^2 

13. \/a-\-x-\-v''a — x=v^ax, to find x. Ans. 214 * 

i/x+28 V^x+SS ^ ^ A ^ 

14. -7Z = -7= , to find X. Ans. 4. 

V x-{-A vx +6 

X ax t/'^rv. . 1 

15. — 7^^=11^, to find X. Ans. 



V^X X ' 1 — ^' 

NoTB.— In Nos. 14 and 15, first clear the equations of fractions. 



17 




AI^GEBBA. 

(FIFTH PAPER.) 

OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

1. In extracting the square root of a polynomial, how 
form the complete divisor? 

2. What is the square root of 4x^-\-24x+Aax-\-36-{-12a+ 
a«? 

3. How form the first complete divisor in extracting 
cube root? 

4. How form the second trial from the first complete 
divisor? 

5. Find the cube root of S4xy^-{-27y^-\-8x^+36x^y. 

6. How can you find the fifth root of a^+5a*d+10a^^-^ 

16a;8 

7. How will you find the fourth root of 5251^^ 

8. How solve an incomplete equation of the second 
degree? 

9. Find the value of y in jy2+2qy==12S. 

10. What is a radical quantity? 

11. What does (4a;2)V2 mean? 

12. When is a radical a surd? 

13. What is usually embraced in the term Calculus? 

14. Simplify i/l28a*6«. Simplify (48x^)72. 

15. Place 2 abv^ — 3c in the form of a simple radical. 

16. Reduce to equivalents of the same degree F 4 and 
i/lO. 

17. Reduce to its simplest value (1^+1^128)— (1^32— 
1/5O). 



18. Given, .1^^= .— , to find x. 

X V X 



18 



jm 



FIRST GRADE— NUMBER SIX. 



Teachers' Home Series 



L. B. McKENNA, M. A., II. D., 

President and Director. 



Quincy School of Correspondence, 
Quincy, Illinois. 



ICOPYRIGHT 
QUINCY BUSINESS COLLEGE 

1902. 




BOTANY. 

(sixth papkr. ) 

spermatophytes. 

There are two great classes of Spermatophytes— those 
which produce naked seeds in the axils of scales (pines, 
spruces, etc.) and those which produce seeds enclosed in pis- 
tils. The former are called Gymno sperms (naked seeds) 
and the latter Angiosperms (inclosed seeds). 

Gymnosperms. — In the Gymnosperms the different 
tissue systems are highly developed. The xylem portions 
of the fibro-vascular bundles are closely compacted into a 
single dense, woody cylinder, which is surrounded by a 
looser mass of tissues, the so-called bark, composed of the 
united phloem portions of the bundles. There are no true 
tracheary cells in the xylem forming ducts for the carrying 
of water, except a few small spiral vessels, which are 
formed at first in young plants, Instead, the tracheary 
tissue made up of tracheids, meaning "trachea-like," is 
well developed. Th»**e tracheids are elongated cells with 
tapering ends overlapping, but not forming a continuous 
series. Their walls are pitted in a way which is character- 
istic of the Gymnosperms, the pits appearing as two con- 
centric rings, called ^'bordered pits." When the walls of 
the cells break down at these points, there is easy comuni- 
cation, and water can pass up the stem from cell to cell by 
means of these openings. 

In the Pine we find two kinds of spores, ( a ) microspores 
in microsporangia in the axils of microsporophylls, which 
are grouped into strobili, (b) megaspores in the axils of 
megasporophylls, which are grouped into other strobili. 
The strobili are commonly called cones; the microsporo- 
phylls, stamens; the microsporangia, pollen-sacs; the 



BOTANY. 

microspores, pollen-grains; the megasporophylls, car- 
pels; the megasporangia, ovules, and the megaspore, 
embryo-sac, because the embryo develops within it. 

A megasporangium or ovule consists of a main body, 
the nucellus, sending out from its base an outer mem- 
brane, integument, which grows up around the nucellus, 
inclosing it with the exception of a small opening at the 
top ( foramen or micropyle ). Imbedded within the nu- 
cellus is the embro-sac or megaspore. 

As soon as the mesgapore is produced, it germinates in 
situ and produces a prothallium similar to that of Selagi- 
nella, except that it is entirely included within the walls of 
the megaspore. This prothallium is composed of nutritive 
tissue, and is commonly known as the endosperm. At 
At the margin of the prothallium, nearest the micropyle, 
regular fl.ask-shaped archegonia appear. As these arche- 
gonia are inaccessible to swimming spermatozoids, a spec- 
ial method of approach must be adopted by the spermato- 
Zoids. The microspore or pollen-grain is at first a single 
cell, but by the time it escapes from the anther, it is a sev- 
eral-celled body, but must, be transferred to the entrance 
of the micropyle before it can complete the process of ger- 
mination. In the spring of the year the two kinds of cones, 
males and female, or staminate, and pistillate, may be 
found, the female cones erect with scales separated to re- 
ceive the pollen from the staminate cones. After the pol- 
len has been received, the pistillate cones becomes inverted, 
and the scales close up tight, so as to shed water and re- 
main in this condition for about eighteen months, or until 
the seeds are ripe. 

Before the microspore has reached the entrance of the 
micropyle, it has produced a rudimentary prothallium like 
that of Selaginella, consisting of one or two cells. The 



BOTANY. 

antheridium makes up remainder of the g-ametophyte, and 
consists of a large cell called the wall cell, and a small 
one called the generative cell. The g-enerative cell di- 
vides and forms two small cells, and one of these again di- 
vides and forms two small cells called male cells,, which 
lie within the large wall cell. When the pollen-grain falls 
in a favorable position near the micropyle of an ovule, the 
wall cell develops a tube (pollen tube), which grows down 
through the nucellus of the ovule, carrying with it the 
male cells to the archegonium. One of the male cells fuses 
with the egg in the archegonium and produces an oospore. 
The oospore now develops into the embryo, and a hard seed 
coat forms on the outside of the megasporangiun^or ovule, 
and we have the seed. If there are several archegonia, 
several embryos may begin to develop, but usually only one 
survives. To sum up the life history of the Pine: (1 ) a seed 
germinates and grows into a pine tree (sporopliyte); (2) 
this sporophyte produces two kinds of strobili (cones), 
staminate or male strobili, and pistillate or female strobili; 

(3) the staminate strobili consist of microsporopliylls, 
and the pistillate strobili consist of megasporophylls; 

(4) the microsporophylls bear on their under sides mlcro- 
sporangia (pollen-sacs) and the megasporophylls bear on 
their upper sides megasporangia (ovules); (5) the micro- 
sporangia contain microspores (pollen-grains), and the 
megasporangia contain megaspores (embryo-sacs); (6) 
microspores are transferred by the wind to the micropyles 
of the megasporangia (this process is pollination); (7) 
the microspore develops a pollen-tube, which penetrates 
the nucellus of the ovule and reaches the neck of an arche- 
gonium which has been developed from the megaspore by 
germination within the megasporangium; (8) one of the 
male cells (spermatozoid) unites with the egg cell of the 

5 



BOTANY. 

archegonium to form an oospore (this process is called fer- 
tilization); (9) the oospore develops immediately into an 
embryo, and inclosing seed coats form, producing the seed. 

It should be born in mind that the Gymnosperms are 
characterized by (1) not having the seeds enclosed in an 
ovary; (2) the formation of the endosperm (prothallium) 
before fertilization; (3) the development of rudimentary 
archegonia from the endosperm, and (4) the division of the 
contents of the pollen-grains, forming a rudimentary pro- 
thallium, before the growth of the pollen-tube. Under the 
Gymnosperms are included the Cycads, Pines, Spruces, 
Hemlocks, Yews, Junipers, Cedars, Cypresses, etc. 

Angio sperms. — This group includes all the plants 
commonly known as ''flowering plants," except those men- 
tioned under Gymnosperms. The epidermis does not differ 
markedly from that of the Gymnosperms and Pterido- 
phytes. The principal differences are that, as a rule, the 
stomata are more numerous and the trichomes more abund- 
ant and varied in form and structure. The fibro-vascular 
bundles are of the so-called "collateral" class — that is, each 
bundle in cross-section presents more or less distinctly two 
sides, viz: xylem and phloem. Two kinds of fibro-vascular 
bundles are found — the open, characterizing the Kxogens, 
and the closed, charactering the j^ndogens. The struc- 
ture and disposition of these bundles have already been 
discussed under "Stem Structure." 

The various forms of flowers and their structure have 
been discussed under the head of "The Flower." It re- 
mains to homologize the parts with those of lower forms 
and to describe the process of reproduction. 

The stamens are microsporophylls; the anther is the 
region which bears the microsporangia, which are usually 
four in number and imbedded beneath the epidermis, two 



BOTANY. 

on each side of the axis. When they reach maturity the 
paired sporangia on each side unite, forming two spore- 
bearing cavities (pollen-sacs) instead of four. The con- 
tained pollen-grains are the microspores. 

The simple pistils or carpels are the megasporophylls, 
and the ovules are megasporangia. The ovules are similar 
in structure to those of Gymnosperms with nucellus, integ- 
ument, micropyle and embryo-sac (megaspore), except 
that there are often two integuments. 

The mature pollen-grain is a single cell, and consists of 
a mass of protoplasm mixed with oil-drops, starch granules, 
etc., surrounded by two investing membranes — an outer 
hard and firm one (the extine), and an inner tliin and del- 
icate one (the intine). When the pollen-grain germinates, 
there is formed within it the simplest known gametoyhyte. 
No trace of the ordinary nutritive cells (rudimentary pro- 
thallium of Gymnosperms) remains, but the whole structure 
seems to represent a single antheridium. 

The one-celled pollen-grain divides, forming a large 
wall-cell and a small generative cell. L<ater the generative 
cell divides, either while in the pollen-grain or after ent- 
rance into the pollen-tube, and two male cells (sperm 
mother-cells) are formed, which function as gametes. 

When pollination occurs and the pollen has been trans- 
ferred from the pollen-sacs to the stigma, it is detained by 
the minute papillae of the stigmatic surface, which also 
secretes a sweetish, sticky fluid. This fluid is a nutrient 
solution for the microspores, which begin to put out their 
tubes. A pollen-tube penetrates through the stigmatic 
surface, enters among the tissues of the style, slowly or 
rapidly traverses the length of the style supplied with food 
by its cells, but not penetrating them, enters the cavity of 
the ovary, passes through the micropyle of an ovule, pene- 

7 



BOTAISIT. 

trates the tissues of the nucellus (if any), and finally 
reaches and pierces the wall of the embryo-sac, within 
which is the egg awaiting fertilization. This remarkable 
ability of the pollen-tube to make its way through so much 
tissue directly to the micropyle of an inclosed ovule, can 
only be explained by supposing that it is under the guid- 
ance of some strong attraction. 

The embryo-sac (megaspore) occupies the same posi- 
tion in the ovule as in Gymnosperms, but its germination 
is much modified. There are two distinct periods in the 
formation of the female gametophyte, separated by the act 
of fertilization. 

At first the megaspore consists of a single cell. The 
nucleus of this cell divides, and one nucleus passes to each 
end of the embryo-sac. These nuclei then divide and sub- 
divide until there are four nuclei at each end of the embryo- 
sac. Then one nucleus from each end moves toward the 
center and fuse to form a single large nucleus at the center, 
known as the primary endosperm nucleus, because it 
later forms the endosperm. The three nuclei remaining 
near the micropyle organize themselves into cells with cell- 
walls and constitute the egg-apparatus. The middle or 
lowest one is the egg, and the other two are synergids or 
"helpers." Here we have one of the distinguishing feat- 
ures of Angiosperms, an egg without an archegonium. 
The three nuclei at the other end of the sac also organize 
into cells with walls, and are known as antipodal cells. 
They probably represent nutritive cells or a rudimentary 
prothallium. They generally disappear soon after being 
formed, but sometimes divide active by forming a consid- 
erable amount of tissue, aiding the endosperm in nourish- 
ing the young embryo. 

8 



BOTANY. 

When the pollen-tube carrying the male cells pierces 
the embryo-sac, it passes along the side of the egg-appa- 
ratus, disorganizing and feeding upon one of the syner- 
gids, and finally reaches the egg. The tip of the tube then 
breaks and discharges one of the male cells, which fuses 
with the egg and forms an oospore, which invests itself 
with a wall. After fertilization has taken place, the pri- 
mary endosperm nucleus develops by repeated division into 
numerous nutritive cells, constituting the endosperm. No- 
tice that in this we have another distinguishing feature, 
viz: that in the Angiosperms the endosperm forms mainly 
after fertilization, while in Gymnosperms it forms before 
fertilization. While the endosperm is forming the oospore 
is germinating and developing into the embryo, which, 
when completed, is more or less surrounded by the endo- 
sperm. 

To sum up the life history of an Angiosperm: (1) a seed 
germinates and grows into a highly organized plant (the 
sporopliyte ) ; ( 2 ) the sporophy te produces flowers contain- 
ing stamens (microsporopliylls) and closed pistils 
(megasporophylls); (3) the stamens bear pollen-sacs 
(formed of microsporangia), and the pistils contain 
ovules (megasporangia); (4) the pollen-sacs contain pol- 
len-grains (microspores), and the ovules contain embryo- 
sacs (megaspores); (5) the pollen-grains are transferred 
to the stigmas, where they germinate, forming a rudimen- 
tary antheridium (but no prothallium) containing two 
sperm mother-cells, while the embryo-sac develops an 
egg without an archegonium or rudimentary prothallium; 
(6) fertilization takes place by the pollen-grains pushing 
down a pollen-tube, containing the male cells, through the 
tissues of the style and ovule to the egg in the embryo-sac 
and the fusing of a male cell with the egg to form an 

9 



BOTANY. 

oospore; (7) the endosperm or rudimentary prothallium 
now develops, and the oospore at the same time g-erminates 
and produces the embryo; (8) seed coats form and we have 
the seed. 

Bear in mind that the Angiosperms differ from the 
Gymnosperms in ( 1 ) having the seeds inclosed in an ovary; 
(2) the formation of the endosperm ( prothallium ) after fer- 
tilization; (3) the entire absence of rudimentary archego- 
nia, and (4) the absence of a rudimentary prothallium in 
in the pollen-grain. 

The Angiosperms are divided into two great groups — 
the Monocotyledons, or Endogens, and the Dicotyle- 
dons, or Exogens. 

The Monocotyledons are characterized by having ( 1 ) 
the embryo with one terminal cotyledon and a lateral stem- 
tip or plumule; (2) vascular bundles of stem scattered (with 
some exceptions); (3) leaf veins forming a closed system, 
the principal veins running parallel, with minute, intricate- 
ly branching veinlets between them (the vein system does 
not end freely in the margin of the leaf, but forms a "closed 
venation," so that the leaves usually have an entire mar- 
gin; there are some exceptions to this character); (4) 
parts of the flowers mostly in threes, but there are some 
Dicotyledons having this characteristic. 

The Dicotyledons are characterized by having (1) em- 
bryo with two lateral cotyledons and terminal stem-tip or 
plumule; (2) vascular bundles of stem, forming a hollow 
cylinder; (3) leaf veins forming an open system with con- 
spicuous net-work of veinlets between the larger veins, 
suggesting the term ''net-veined" (the vein system ends 
freely in the margin of the leaf, forming an "open vena- 
tion,." producing generally a toothed, lobed or divided mar- 
gin); (4) parts of the flowers usually "in fours" or "in 

10 



BOTANY. 

fives." A single one of the above characters is not suffi- 
cient to determine the group to which a plant belongs. It 
is the combination of characters which must be considered. 
The Monocotyledons include the Pond-weeds, Grasses and 
Sedges, Palms, Aroids Clike Jack-in-the-Pulpit), lyilies and 
Orchids. 

The Dicotyledous include a vast number of plants, all 
our hardwood trees and fruit trees, butter-cups, roses, le- 
gumes (such as bean and pea), umbellifers (parsnip, cara- 
way), heaths, mints, convolvulus, composite flowers, etc. 

POIyl^INATlON AND Fe;rTII.IZATION. 

This subject has been merely touched upon in the pre- 
ceding papers. Strictly speaking, i^ollinaticm is the act 
of transferring the pollen from the anther to the stigma, 
while fertilization is the union of the male cell of the 
pollen-grain with the egg-cell of the ovule. In order that 
the ovule may develop into a seed fertilization is absolutely 
necessary, and in most cases, healthy, vigorous offspring 
are produced only when the two gametes are produced by 
different flowers of the same species. 

Considered with reference to the source from which the 
pollen comes, pollination or fertilization may be divided 
into three kinds, viz: 

(1) Self-pollination, or close-fertilization, when 
the pollen which falls on the stigma comes from the an- 
thers of the same flower to which the stigma in question 
belongs; or, less closely, when the pollen comes from a 
blossom of the same flower cluster. 

(2) Cross-pollination, or cross-fertilization, 

when the pollen comes from another individual of the same 
species. 

(3) Hybridization, when the pollen, which fertilizes 
the ovules comes from an individual of a closely related 
species. 

11 



BOTANY^ 

Self-pollination necessarily takes place in all cleis- 

togamous flowers, or those that never open, but are 
fertilized in the bud, as in the later flowers of the common 
Violet and in the Hog--Peanut. This method of pollination 
would seem to be the natural method in all ordinary flowers 
which have both stamens and pistils, but it is not so. In 
fact, cross pollination seems to be the preferred method. 

In cross-pollination, the pollen must be carried by 
some means from one flower to another. Two methods 
of accomplishing- this are very common. One is by the 
wind, in anemopliilous (wind loving) flowers; the other, 
by insects, in entomopliilous (insect loving) flowers. 

Anemophilous flowers are generally inconspicuous and 
without fragrance or nectar to attract insects. They are 
commonly monoecious or dioecious, as in the Pines, Oaks 
and Birches; sometimes hermaphrodite, as in the Plan- 
tains and grasses. Necessarily they must produce a great 
abundance of very light pollen suitable to be borne by the 
wind. Microscopic examination of wind-borne pollen 
generally shows the existence of minute air sacs on the 
sides of the pollen grain. 

IJntomophilous flowers on the other hand are general- 
ly brightly colored and showy, sweet scented and nectar- 
bearing, in order that insects may be attracted. A few, how- 
ever, are dull red or brown in color and carrion scented to 
attract flies. It is a notable fact that many of the showiest 
flowers have no odor but rely upon their conspicuousness 
to attract insects, while small ones, like the Mignonette 
and night blooming ones, like the Four-o'clock, are very 
sweet scented. Moreover, most flowers which bloom at 
night are white and more fragrant than day-blooming 
ones. 

12 



BOTANY 

Various kinds of insects visit flowers to secure food 
either in the form of pollen or nectar. Some of these are 
not suitable in structure and habits for transferring the 
pollen. The ordinary ant with its smooth body, to which 
the pollen will not readily cling-, must walk from flower to 
flower and thereby have what little does cling, brushed 
off by contact with many obstacles. The bees, butter- 
flies and moths have a hairy or scaly covering which en- 
tangles much pollen, and their path from flower to flower 
is directly through the air, so that little is lost on the 
way. Moreover, they are generally not promiscuous, 
in their visits, but select flowers of the same species, thus 
insuring the delivery of the pollen to the right^flowers. 

In most entomophilous flowers there are special adapta- 
tions; (1) for warding off unsuitable insects; (2) for se- 
curing the visits of suitable insects; (3) for prevention of 
self-pollination, and the securing of cross-pollination. 

ADAPTATIONS FOR WARDING OFF UNSUlTABI^B INSECTS. 

( a ) Hairs.— A barrier of hairs upon the stem, in the 
flower cluster, or in the flower itself, often serves to turn 
back ants and other creeping insects. 

( b ) Glandular secretions.— Sometimes a sticky se- 
cretion is found on the surface of plants, which prevents 
small insects from climbing the stem. In the Catchfly a 
ring of this substance surrounds each joint of the stem. 

(/) Latex.— A milky secretion is found in some 
plants, as the Milkweed and Spurge, which gushes out 
when the epidermis is pierced by the claws or jaws of in- 
sects. This becomes sticky and finally hard, thus effectual- 
ly entangling the insects. 

(d) Protective Forms.— In the Snapdragon the two 
lips of the corolla are so firmly closed that they can only 
be opened by a heavy insect, as a bumblebee, alighting on 

13 



BOTANY. 

the projecting underlip. All small insects are thus ex- 
cluded. In Penstemon, one of the stamens is sterile and 
densely bearded, and lies like a bar across the entrance to 
the nectar pit. The long slender proboscis of a moth or 
butterfly can be thrust through, but the body of an insect 
cannot enter. The nectar of the Columbine and Nastur- 
tium is secreted at the bases of long spurs of the corolla, 
where it can only be reached by insects having a long 
sucking tube or tongue. Some gamopetalous flowers have 
a long, slender, tube-shaped corolla. In the livening 
Primrose, much visited by the Spinx Moth, the calyx is 
prolonged beyond the ovary and is filiform. In the Bear- 
berry the corolla tube is constricted near the top; in the 
Hound's-tongue it is closed by appendages; in the Speed- 
well it is closed by hairs; in the Tellima and Nodding 
Campion the divisions of the corolla are recurved. All 
of these contrivances hinder the access of insects to the 
nectaries or pollen. 

(e) Protective Closure.— Certain flowers, as the 
livening Primrose, open at dusk, after the deposit of dew, 
when ants are not abroad, and are closed at other times. 
By doing this they also secure the visits of moths, which 
fly at night. 
ADAPTATIONS T^OK SECURING VISITS O^ SUITABI,^ INSECTS. 

As already stated, flowers secure the visits of insects 
in general, by offering them as a recompense, food in the 
form of pollen and nectar. Furthermore, they advertise 
their store of food by showy signs in the form of large and 
brightly colored corollas, calyxes or involucres; by the 
massing of small flowers into showy clusters or heads 
(Clover, Compostae, lyilac); or by the effusion of agreeable 
odors. All these adaptations serve to attract insects in 
general. 

14 



BOTANY. 

Most irregular flowers, perhaps all, are specially 
adapted for securing- visits of particular insects. Some of 
these adaptations have been discussed under the head of 
"Adaptations for warding off unsuitable insects. In two- 
lipped corollas the lower lip serves as an alighting place 
for a flying insect. In the Horse Chestnut the stamens 
form a sort of grating, serving the same purpose. In the 
flowers of the Pea family the stamens and pistil are con- 
cealed in the keel upon which the insect alights. If the 
weight of the insect is sufficient, the keel is depressed to 
such an extent that the stigma and upper portion of the 
pollen-covered style emerge from the keel and come in con- 
tact with the body of the insect, dusting it witlrpollen, and 
at the same time receiving in return some pollen collected 
from a previously visited flower. Flowers with long, tube- 
shaped or constricted corollas or calyxes, are adapted to 
exclude all but long-tongued insects. Carrion-scented flow- 
ers are adapted to attract flies, to the exclusion of bees and 
butterflies, as it is well known that flies prefer bad odors, 
while bees and butterflies prefer sweet scents. 

ADAPTATIONS FOR THE) PREVENTION OE SEl/E-POI,I,INATlON 
AND THE SECURING OF CROSS-POI,I<INATlON. 

Many adaptations for the prevention of self-pollination 
serve also to secure cross-pollination. In monoecious and 
dioecious plants self-pollination is obviously impossible. 
In flowers containing both stamens and pistils, there are 
many devices for securing the same results, but most of 
them come under one of three heads: 

(1) Position.— The pollen and stigma may become 
ripe at the same time, but be so placed with reference to 
each other that the pollen cannot easily fall on the stigma 
—that is, the stigma may be above or beyond the anthers 
or separated from them by some mechanical obstruction. 

IS 



BOTANY, 

This is the case in many flowers of the Pea family, of which 
an illustration was given under the previous heading-. In 
the Rose Acacia, the anthers are not only below the stigma, 
but there is also a rosette of hairs on the style below the 
stigma which acts as a barrier to the pollen. 

In the common Flag the three stigmas are broad and 
petal-like and arch over the three stamens. Morever, they 
are stigmatic on the upper surface only. As the insect 
alights it strikes the upper or stigmatic surface first and 
deposits some pollen collected from another flower. It 
then pushes itself under the stigmatic flap) into the 
nectar pit which lies between the petal and the stigma, and 
in so doing, rubs against the anther and is dusted with 
pollen. In leaving the flower it does not have to touch the 
stigmatic surface, but in alighting on a flower it can hard- 
ly avoid it. 

In the Milkweeds and Orchids the pollen is in sticky 
masses which cannot fall from the pollen sacs but must be 
dragged out. The story of pollination in Orchids is very 
complicated ^and interesting. In Habenaria the stigma 
forms a concave surface with the nectar pit at the bottom 
and the two pollen sacs above. The pollen masses are at- 
tached to projecting, sticky discs. In order to get the nec- 
tar a moth must thrust his head into the concave stigmatic 
space and against the sticky discs. When it withdraws its 
head the discs stick to its eyes and the pollen masses are 
dragged out and carried to the next flower. Here the pro- 
cess is repeated and some of the pollen is necessarily de- 
posited on the concave stigmatic surface. 

(2) Consecutive Maturity.— In the common Fig- 
wort when the flower first opens, the style and ripe stigma 
protrude from the flower while the stamens are recurved 
and not ready to shed their pollen. I^ater, after the style 

16 



BOTANY' 

and stigma have wilted, the stamens protrude and shed 
their pollen. This is called protogyny ( pistils ripening 
first). In the Fireweed the stamens ripen first and shed 
their pollen and afterwards the stigma becomes receptive. 
This is called protandry. It will be readily seen that 
where protandry or protogyny exists, it is impossible 
for a stigma to receive pollen from the stamens of its 
own flower. 

(3) Difference in Pollen.— In Houstonia we find 
two kinds of perfect flowers; one kind with short stamens 
and long style, the other with short style and long stamens. 
It has been found that the pollen from short stamens is 
effective when received by the stigma of a short%tyle, but 
is entirely useless when applied to the long-styled forms. 
I^ikewise the pollen from long stamens is effective upon 
long-styled, but not the short-styled forms. This kind of 
pollination has been called dimorphic lieterogeny. 

Sometimes there are three forms of flowers as in one 
Ivoosestrifes. Kach flower has stamens of two lengths, 
which, with the style, makes possible three combinations. 
One flower has short stamens, middle-length stamens 
and long style; another has short stamens, middle-length 
style and long stamens; the third has short style, middle- 
length stamens and long stamens. In these cases also, the 
stigmas are intended to receive pollen from stamens of 
their own length, and a transfer of pollen from flower to 
flower is necessary. This is known as trimorpliic lie- 
terogony. 

In the lyady's Slipper the nectar is inclosed in the toe 
of the slipper. The stigma forms a flap over the opening 
into the slipper and presents its stigmatic surface toward 
the inside. The two anthers are also on the inner side of 
this flap, but further back (nearer the heel). A bee can 

17 



BOTANY. 

enter without touching the stigmatic surface. Even if it 
rubs against the flap in entering it only depresses the flap 
without touching the under (sti'gmatic) side. After ob- 
taining the nectar it tries to escape through the opening 
which is barred by the stigmatic flap. In so doing the bee 
comes in contact with the under surface and if there is 
any pollen on its back it is deposited on the stigma. After 
it has brushed past the stigma it rubs against the pollen 
sacs and escapes with the sticky pollen adhering to its back. 

Here again, self-polination is avoided because the bee 
does not receive the pollen of the flower in question until 
it has passed the stigma and is just emerging from the 
flower. This pollen will, of course, be deposited on the 
stigma of the next lyady's Slipper visited. 
SKKD DISPKRSAI,. 

In order that the spores or seeds may germinate and 
produce new individuals, they must be scattered and fall in 
a favorable location at a greater or less distance from the 
parent plant. In the lower forms of plants the spores are 
scattered chiefly by the wind or water. In water plants 
the spores generally develop cilia for locomotion, and are 
called zoospores. In the land forms the spores are very 
light and easily wafted here and there by very slight air 
currents. 

Most moulds shoot their spores out with considerable 
force. The ferns have special devices for throwing the 
spores. Seed plants have numerous interesting methods of 
dispersing the seeds. The commnest method is probably 

Dispersal "by the Wind.— Many annual weeds, when 
growing in sandy soil, or where they have plenty of light, 
branch profusely so as to become globular in form and pro- 
duce seed abundantly. In the fall of the year the stem 
dies, becomes dry and is easily broken off close to the 

18 



BOTANY. 

ground by the wind and rolled along, scattering the seeds 
as it goes. These are known as *'tumble-weeds" and "field- 
rollers," and are especially abundant on plains or level 
stretches where winds are strong. Under this head may be 
put the Russian thistle, some of the peppergrasses, witch- 
grass tops, hop-clover, bug-seed, buffalo-burr, some spurges 
and pigweeds (Amaranthus albus). 

Thin dry pods, like those of the common locust, twisted 
and bent, drift on the snow. L<ikewise the nutlets of the 
linden or basswood, which cling to their bract-bearing 
stems, are well adapted to being wind-driven on a snow 
crust. 

Many fruits and seeds are provided with flattened 
wing, so that they are buoyed up by the wind like a kite or 
a piece of paper, and are thus often blown along the ground 
for many rods. The maples, ptelea,' ash, box-elder, elm and 
ailanthus, furnish good examples of winged^ fruits, and 
the pine and catalpa, of winged seeds. Instead of wings, 
tufted plumes serving the same purpose, may be present, as 
in the fruit of the dandelion and many other compositae 
which have a fluffy pappus composed of the persistent calyx 
surmounting the dry achenes; the achenes of the Virgin's 
Bower with persistent feathery styles; the seeds of the 
milkweeds, cotton, willow herb, fireweed and many others. 

Sometimes the seeds are enclosed in a bladder-like pod, 
which is easily rolled along, as in the Amaranthus. 

Dispersal by Shooting'. — Nearly every one has seen 
a lemon or watermelon seed shot from between the thumb 
and finger by pressure. In the Witch Hazel and violet, the 
walls- of the seed-vessel press upon the contained seeds, so 
that when rupture occurs the seeds are pinched out. 

In the touch-me-not, oxalis, wild bean and many others 
the pods ripen in a highly strained condition, with a strong 

19 



BOTANY. 

tendency to burst spirally, the valves coiling and springing- 
in opposite directions. When the valves can no longer hold 
together, they snap very suddenly and sling the seeds in 
all directions, sometime to a distance of thirty feet or more* 
Often a mere touch, as by the brushing by of an animal, 
will set them off, and some of the seeds may fall in the fur 
of the animal and be carried for a long distance. 

Dispersal by Water. — If one were to examine masses 
of driftwood along streams, many water-borne seeds would 
be found. Common among these are the bladdernuts, con- 
sisting of a dry pod composed of three air-tight cells enclos- 
ing a few hard seeds; shriveled wild grapes overlooked by 
birds, but now adapted to float on the water, whereas a 
clean seed would sink at once; fruits of narrow-leaved dock 
with persistent calyx, bearing corky tubercles on the outer 
sides of the sepals, thus enabling seed to float; seeds of 
sedges in air-tight inflated sacks, or with corky growths; 
arrow-head fruits with spongy ridges at the apex; lyme 
grasses with empty glumes attached; achenes of bur-reed, 
cat-tail flag, hop, nettles, cinquefoil and many others, all 
adapted to float on the water. Many of those fruits or seeds 
which are borne by the wind are carried equally well by 
water, as the fruits of the locust, maple and basswood. 

Dispersal by Animals.— It is a well-known fact that 
squirrels carry nuts and bury them or drop them to the 
ground, where they often germinate. Birds, like the blue- 
jays, woodpeckers and crows, also carry nuts and seeds 
from place to place and often accidentally drop them on 
the way. 

Many animals eat seeds with hard coats which are not 
affected by the digestive juices, and a large portion of these 
seeds germinate where they are deposited. The color, odor, 
or pleasant taste of many fruits, when ripe, attract animals. 

20 



The raspberry, blackberry, strawberry, cherries, etc., etc., 
are devoured for the luscious and easily digested pulp, but 
the hard-coated inclosed seeds are eaten at the same time 
and escape digestion. 

Ants distribute some kinds of seeds. Seeds of wild 
ginger, euphorbia, trillium, violet, bellwort and many oth- 
ers have a Jleshy caruncle at the base, which ants relish. 
This caruncle serves both as a handle, enabling the ant to 
carry the seed more easily, and as food for the ant. The 
hard seed is generally rejected as soon as the caruncle is 
eaten. 

Earthworms often make use of seeds to line their bur- 
rows, and these seeds have been known to germinate. 

Cattle, sheep, foxes and many wild animals carry seeds 
or fruits attached to their fur. Some seeds, like the flax, 
plantain, sage, peppergrass, etc., etc., are sticky and adhere 
to whatever they touch. Many fruits bear hooks or barbs, 
by means of which they cling to fur, feathers or clothing. 
Good examples are furnished by the burdock, cockleburr, 
ticktrefoil, stick-seed, beggar's lice, sand-burr, hounds's 
tongue, etc., etc. 

Water birds and muskn^ts carry seeds in the mud which 
clings to their feet. Darwin found on the feet of a bird six 
and three-quarter ounces of mud, in which were five hun- 
dred and thirty-seven seeds that germinated. 

Dispersal by Man.— Seeds and fruits with grappling 
appendages, are as likely to be transferred from place to 
place by the clothing of man as by the fur of animals. The 
agency of man in the distribution of seeds exceeds all other 
agencies combined. He buys and sells seeds and plants, 
and sends them to all parts of the habitable globe. He ex- 
terminates many plants in large areas, and substitutes 
those of his own choice. Mixed with seeds of grasses, 

21 



BOTANY. 

clovers and grains, he introduces many seeds and sows 
them with his crops. He transports them with barnyard 
manure, In feed-stuff, in the packing of nursery stock, 
crockery, baled hay and straw. A great many plants have 
been Introduced for ornament or food and have afterward 
spread as weeds. A few have been shipped to distant lands 
in the ballast of the vessels and unloaded and reloaded at 
wharves where freight is changed. Many are carried along 
the highways in wagons, or distributed along the toe paths 
of canals, or transported on the trucks or cars of railroads. 
They are imported or exported in fleeces of wool. They 
float down irrigating ditches from farm to farm, and are 
thus widely distributed by the water. 




22 



BOTANY. 



OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

(SIXTH pap£;r.) 

1. What are the two great classes of seed-bearing 
plants? 

2. How does the stem structure of the one differ from 
that of the other? 

3. Describe the reproduction of Gymnosperms. 

4. Sum up the life history of the Pine. % 

5. Mention the distinguishing characteristics of Gym- 
nosperms. 

6. Describe the reproduction of Angiosperms. 

7. Sum up the life history of an Angiosperm. 

8. Give the distinguishing characteristics of Angio- 
sperms. 

9. Distinguish between Dicotyledons and Monocoty- 
ledons. 

10. Define pollination, fertilization, hybridiza- 
tion, anemophilous, entoniopliilous. 

11. Why are insects attracted to flowers? 

12. Give several methods of warding off insects which 
are not suitable for cross-fertilizing plants. 

13. Mention preventions of self-fertilization. 

14. What is protandry? Protogyny? 

15. Give an example of dimorphic heterogeny. 
16.. How is the I^ady's Slipper fertilized? 

Vh What plants have their seeds distributed by the 
wind? 

18. Give examples of seed dispersal by water. 

19. What animals help to carry seeds from place to 
place? 

20. How does man unconsciously distribute seeds? 



23 



ZOOLOGY. 

(sixth paper.) 
reptii^ia. 
Although popularly associated with Batrachians, the 
reptiles are in reality more closely related to the birds than 
to the salamanders and frogs. The resemblance to Batra- 
chians is mostly superficial. The class may be subdivided 
as follows: 

Ophidia, Snakes. 
j^ ..,. Lacertilia, I^izards. 

I Testudinata, Turtles and Tortoises. 
Crocodilia, Aligators and Crocoailes. 

All members of the class are cold-blooded and breathe 
exclusively by means of lungs, the forms which live in 
water coming to the surface to breathe. They are easily 
distinguished from the Batrachians by the presence of 
horny scales or plates on the outside of the body and by the 
entire absence of gills after hatching. Most reptiles live 
on the land, but some live in fresh water and the ocean. 
As the young have the same habitat and mode of life as the 
adults there is no marked metamorphosis. 

Body Form. — The shape of the body varies from the 
long, slender, cylindrical form of a snake through the 
more compact, more or less flattened forms of lizards and 
crocodiles to the short, thick, sometimes almost spherical 
forms of turtles and tortoises. The bodies of snakes and 
lizards are covered with epidermal plates or scales and 
those of crocodiles and turtles with true bony plates in ad- 
dition to the horny epidermal plates. The coloring and 
markings are due to pigment cells in the skin. In some 
forms, like the chameleon, the colorings and markings can 

_ 1 



ZOOLOGY 

be quickly chang-ed by a variation in the tension of the 
skin. The legs are well developed, four in number, and 
five-toed in turtle and crocodiles; less developed in lizards 
and four in number or only two; sometimes none at all; and 
entirely absent or consisting of only two rudimentary hind 
legs in snakes. 

Structure. — The number of vertebrae varies from 
thirty-four in turtles to four hundred in some snakes. The 
skull resembles that of birds in the number and arrange- 
ment of its parts and the manner of atj:achment to the 
spinal column, although the bones are not fused together 
as in birds. The two halves of the lower jaw of the snake 
are united in front by elastic ligaments and in the rear they 
are attached to the cranium in such a way as to allow the 
snake to open its mouth wide enough to swallow objects 
much larger than its entire head. All reptiles, except tur- 
tles, are supplied with small sharp teeth, adapted to seize 
and hold prey but not to masticate it. Poisonous snakes 
have one or more long, sharp, backwardly curved fangs, 
which are either grooved or hollow. These fangs are 
erectile and provided with poison glands which eject poison 
into the wound inflicted by the fangs. In many reptiles, 
notably snakes, the tongue is long and forked and incased 
in a sheath when not in use. It is used principally as an 
organ of touch. 

The digestive organs are similar to those of Batrachi- 
ans. In snakes, owing to the elongated form of the body 
cavity, all paired organs are unequally developed or placed 
at different levels in the body cavity. All reptiles have 
two simple sac-like lungs, but the left one (as in snakes), 
is often poorly developed. In turtles the lungs cannot be 
expanded in the ordinary manner by the use of the ribs, 
because of the rigidty of the carapace, so they have to be 
filled by swallowing. 



ZOOLOGY 

The reptilian heart is composed of two auricles and 
two ventricles, but in all reptiles, except the crocodilia, the 
partition between the ventricles is incomplete. There are 
two aortic arches, as in Batrachians, uniting to form a 
dorsal aorta. 

The brain is superior in size and complexity of struc- 
ture to that of the Batrachians, and resembles quite closely 
that of birds. Taste is .little developed but the olfactory 
sense is quite highly specialized. The nostrils bear 
olfactory papillae on their inner surfaces. The ears of 
snakes are entirely internal like those of fishes, but those 
of lizards are partly external, that is, there is a^pit on the 
outside leading down to the tympanum, while those of 
crocodiles and alligators are well defined, consisting of a 
flap of skin covering' the tympanum. E)yes are always 
present and highly developed. All reptiles, excepting 
the snakes, and a few lizards, have movable eyelids and a 
nictitating membrane like that of birds. The snakes have 
no eyelids, but the outer skin covers and protects the eye, 
becoming transparent and thickened to form a lens over 
the inner eye. In addition to the ordinary eye, there is in 
many lizards a remarkable unpaired eye-like organ on top 
of the head. This is called the pineal eye and vestiges of 
it are found in all vertebrates, appearing generally as a 
knobbed projection from the mid-brain. ^ In ancient reptiles 
it was probably a well developed eye. 

Life History.— Most of the reptiles lay eggs from 
which the young hatch after a short period of incubation. 
In the case of some snakes and lizards, the eggs are re- 
tained in the body of the mother until the young hatch. 
Such reptiles are said to be ovoviviparous, because the 
young, though born alive, are enclosed in the egg until the 



ZOOLOGY 

moment of birth. There is no essential difference between 
the young and the adults except in sisje and sometimes in 
coloration. 

Anura.— One of our commonest snakes is the fa- 
miliar garter snake (Eutaenia). It feeds upon fishes and 
frogs, and though unpleasant and ill-tempered, is perfectly 
harmless. 

The black snake, or blue racer (Bascanian Con- 
strictor) is much larger, lustrous pitch black, general color 
greenish below with white throat. It feeds upon mice, 
toads and birds, and often climbs trees to hunt for young 
birds in the nest. 

The spreading adder, or blowing viper, is a common 
snake, brownish or reddish in color, with dark dorsal and 
lateral blotches. It depresses and expands its head when 
angry, and by its hissing and threatening leads one to 
believe that it is very dangerous. It is not poisonous, how- 
ever, and quite harmless. 

Besides the coral or bead snake (Elaps fulvius), a 
small jet black snake with seventeen yellow-bordered crim- 
son rings, found in'the Southern States, there are only three 
poisonous snakes in the United States — the rattle-snake, 
the copperhead, and the water-moccasin. They all have 
a large triangular head. In the rattlesnake the tip of the 
tail is composed of a series of thin, horny capsules, formed 
from the modified epidermis, which is not molted when the 
rest of the skin is, but remains attached to the end of the 
body. As many as thirty rattles have been found on a 
single snake. The copperhead (agistrodon contortu), 
is light chestnut in color, with inverted Y-shaped darker 
blotches on the sides. It is vicious and very dangerous. 
The water-moccasion is dark chestnut-brown with darker 
markings, with a purplish black head. It reaches a length 

4 



ZOOLOGY 

of over four feet, and is very venomous. It must not be con- 
founded with the common harmless water-snake, some- 
times called the water-moccasion. 

Lacertilia. — Lizards are especially abundant in the 
tropics, but in the United States there are only a few 
species. They are elongated in form, and have usually 
four leg's. In the so-called joint-snake, -or glass-snake, there 
are no limbs at all. It received its name because it is 
snake-like in form, and its tail is so brittle that it breaks 
off with the slightest blow. In course of time a new tail 
is regenerated, but stories about the un jointing and fasten- 
ing together of the various segments of the body are all 
without foundation. There is only one pois^ous lizard, 
the gila monster, a heavy deep-black, orange-mottled liz- 
zard, about sixteen inches long, found in New Mexico and 
Arizona. 

The horned toads (Phrynosoina), of the western 
part of the United States, have short, heavy bodies, with 
spiny protective protuberances, and colorations resembling 
the soil, sand and rocks among which the animal lives. 

A most interesting little lizard is the chameleon 
(Aiiolis principalis), which has a body about three inches 
long, and a slender tail, five or six inches long. Its normal 
color is grass-green, but it may assume almost instantly 
shades varying from a beautiful emerald to a dark and iri" 
descent bronze color. Its change of color depends upon 
the possession of several layers of different color in the 
skin, which layers can be separately expanded or con- 
tracted as required so that some one color comes to predom- 
inate. 

Testudinata. — The commonest turtle in the Northern 
States is probably the painted, or mud-turtle (Chryse- 
mys), which is brilliantly colored and usually confined to 

S 



ZOOLOGY 

ponds. The soft-shelled turtles, with carapace incom- 
pletely ossified and covered by a thick, leathery skin, which 
is flexible at the margins, are common in most rivers. The 
snapping- turtle (Chelydra serpentina), common in 
streams and ponds, has a shell high in front and 
low behind and a long head and t,tail incapable of be- 
ing withdrawn into the shell. The box-tortoise (Cis- 
tudo Carolina), is common in woods and pastures 
and readily recognizable by the fact that it can enclose 
itself completely in its shell by closing down the lids of the 
plastron. The "diamond-back terrapin," much esteemed 
for food, is a salt water form found in salt marshes along 
most of the Atlantic coast. The sea turtles reach a length 
of six feet or more, and a weight of nine hundred pounds, 
and have their feet modified into paddles for swimming. 

Crocodilia. — There are only two species of crocodilia 
found in the United States — the American crocodile, found 
sometimes in Florida, but more often in the West Indies 
and South America, and the alligator common in the South- 
ern States. The alligator has a broader snout than the 
crocodile. The Nile crocodile and the gavial of the Ganges 
are very large, reaching a length of twenty feet, and are 
known to attack and devour human beings. The Ameri- 
can species are seldom over twelve feet in length, and feed 
upon fish and aquatic animals of various kinds, but sel- 
dom attack man. 

AVES. 

Birds are readily distinguished from all other kinds of 
animals by their feathers. They differ from reptiles, on 
the one hand, in having warm blood (of a temperture of 
from 100° to 112° F. ), and in possessing a complete double 
circulation, that is, a four-chambered heart sending blood 



ZOOLOGY 

from one side to the lungs, and from the other side to the 
remainder of the body. On the other hand they are dis- 
tinguished from mammals by the absence of milk-glands. 

Structure. — The general appearance of a bird is too 
familiar to need description. The covering of feathers, 
the modification of the ^fore limbs into wings, and the 
toothless, beaked mouth are characteristic features. The 
feathers cover the whole surface of the body but do not 
spring from all parts of the skin. If one takes pains to 
examine a bird which has been plucked, he will find that 
the feather-producing papillae are arranged in tracts 
(pterylae), separated by smooth bare place* (apteria). 
Several kinds of feathers may be distinguished — soft, short 
plumules, or down feathers; larger, stiffer contour- 
feathers; quill-feathers of the wings and tail, and 
fine bristles or thread-feathers growing about the eyes 
and nostrils. Although the wings are developed for flying 
in most birds, they are sometimes only rudimentary, as in 
ostriches, or much reduced, as in the penguins, where they 
serve as flippers to aid in swimming under water. The 
legs vary greatly with the habits of the bird, being large 
and strong in running birds like the ostrich and chick- 
en; long and slender in w;ading birds like the stork; short 
and strong with webbed-feet in swimming birds, like the- 
duck, and short with well-developed claws in the perching 
birds. All living birds are toothless, but it is an inter- 
esting fact that certain extinct forms, known through 
fossils, had large teeth set in sockets on both jaws. The 
absence of teeth is partially made up for by the hard, 
horny beak, which enables the bird to tear its food but 
not to masticate it. 

The bones of birds are hollow and filled with air and 
the air spaces communicate with air sacs in the body, 

7 



ZOOLOGY 

which in turn connect with the lungs. This arrangement 
renders the body of the bird very light, a condition helpful 
in fight. In all flying birds the pectoral muscles, used in 
flying, are enormously developed and the breastbone is 
provided with a correspondingly large ridge or keel, for 
the attachment of these mucles. In birds with rudimentary 
wings (the ostrich) this keel may be wholly wanting. The 
wings terminate in three digits, the anterior one, which 
corresponds to the thumb, being shorter and slightly sepa> 
rated from the others. The legs have usually four toes, 
although a few birds have only three, and the ostrich only 
two toes. The feathers always extend down to the heel of 
the bird, the long bare portion extending thence to the 
toes is the ankle, or tars us » 

The lungs of birds are more complex than those of ba- 
trachians and reptiles, being divided into numerous small 
spaces by membranous partitions which greatly increase 
the amount of oxygenating surface. They are not lobed 
as in mammals nor do they hang free in the body cavity 
but are fastened to the ribs and spine. The air-sacs and 
bones can be filled with air from the lungs by means of 
the communications already mentioned. 

The vocal chords, instead of being situated in a larynx 
at the beginning of the trachea are located in a dilation 
of the lower portion of the trachea just where the two 
bronchial tubes branch off. This is sometimes called a 
lower larynx or a syrinx. 

The circulation of birds is very active, they have the 
hottest blood and the quickest pulse of all animals. This 
necessitates a well-developed four-chambered heart. The 
partition between the right and left sides is complete so 
that there is no mingling of venous and arterial blood as in 
reptiles and batrachians. 

8 



ZOOLOGY 

The brain is larger and more highly developed than in 
reptiles but the cerebrum is small and has no convolutions 
as in mammals. The optic lobes are of great size, rela- 
tively, compared with those of other vertebrate brains, 
and there is no doubt that the sight of birds is very keen. 
The eyes have movable lids and in addition at the inner 
angle of each a delicate, translucent nictitating* mem- 
brane, which can be drawn over the ball. The senses of 
smell and taste are apparently not very keen, as there is 
no extensive development of taste buds in the mouth, or of 
olfactory membrane in the nasal passages. Hearing is un- 
doubtedly well developed, although there is no external ear 
other than a simple opening concealed by the feathers. It 
is supposed that robins can hear worms crawling in their 
burrows, for they are very successful in finding them as 
they hop through the grass, stopping now and then and 
assuming a listening attitude. 

Life History. — All birds are hatched from eggs which 
undergo a longer or shorter period of incubation outside the 
body of the mother. The eggs vary greatly in size and color 
markings, and in number, from one, as with many of the 
Arctic Ocean birds, to six to ten, as with most song-birds, 
or from ten to twenty, as with some of the pheasants and 
grouse. Incubation lasts from ten to thirty days among 
the more familiar birds, to nearly fifty among the ostriches. 
The temperature necessary is about 100° F. Among most 
polygamous birds, like the chicken, the male takes no part 
in incubation or care of the young. Among monogamous 
birds, however, the male helps to build the nest, takes its 
turn at sitting on the eggs and bringing food to the young. 
The young, when ready to hatch, break the egg-shell with 
the "egg-tooth," a horny, pointed projection on the upper 
mandible, and emerge either blind and almost naked, de- 

9 



ZOOLOGY 

pendent upon the parents for food until able to fly ( altri- 
cial young), or with eyes open and with body covered with 
down, and able in a few hours to feed (precocial young). 

ClyASSlFlCATlON Olf BIRDS. 

The class Aves is usually divided into numerous orders, 
varying- according- to the opinions of various zoologists, but 
the following scheme of classification has been agreed upon 
by most American ornithologists. 

Ratitae ( ostriches, cassowaries, etc. )— They are 
characterized by having the breastbone flat instead of 
keeled, wings reduced so that flight is impossible, and the 
legs long and strong and used for running. The eggs, 
which are six inches long, are laid in the sand and incu- 
bated by the male, or by the hot sun. 

Pygopodes (loons, grebes, auks, etc.)— These are 
aquatic birds with webbed or lobed feet, and legs set so far 
back that walking is difficult. They are excellent swim- 
mers and divers and fly well. 

liongipennes (gulls, terns, petrels and albat- 
rosses). — These are mostly maritime water birds with 
webbed feet and very long and pointed wings. 

Steganopodes (cormorants, pelicans, etc.)— 

These are water birds, with full-webbed feet and prominent 
gular pouch, which is used as a sort of dip-net to catch fish. 
They are better runners than flyers. 

Answeres (ducks, geese and swans ) are familiar 
to all, and are characterized by more or less flattened bills, 
with tooth-like processes along the edges. These processes, 
or lamellae, serve as a strainer to separate food from the 
mud. 

Herodiones (ibises, herons and bitterns). —These 
are tall, long-necked wading birds. 

10 



ZOOLOGY 

Paludicolse (cranes, rails and coots).— The cranes 
are large birds with long- legs and neck, and part of the head 
naked or covered with hair-like feathers. The rails are 
smaller than the cranes, with short wings and very short 
tail. The American coot, or mud-hen, is a familiar pond 
bird all over temperate North America. 

Limicolae (snipes, sandpipes, plover, etc.)— This 
is a large order of rather small shore-birds, with slender 
legs', slender bills and round heads. They are waders to a 
certain extent, and most of them are much hunted as game 
birds. 

Gallinae (grouse, quail, pheasants, turkeys, etc.) 
— Domestic fowls, as the hen, Guinea fowl, peacock and 
pheasants, belong to this order. They all have short, 
heavy, convex and bony bills, adapted for picking up and 
crushing seeds, which compose their principal food. Their 
legs are strong, but not very long. They are mostly ter- 
restrial in habits, and are sometimes known as Rasores or 
* 'scratch ers." 

Columbse ( doves and pigeons) are similar to the 
Gallinae, except that the base of the bill is covered by a soft 
swollen membrane or cere, in which the nostrils open. 

Raptores (eagles, owls and vultures).— These are 
the "birds of prey," and compose one of the largest orders. 
In all the bill is heavy, powerful and strongly hooked at the 
tip; the feet are strong, with long curved claws fitted for 
seizing and holding living prey. The vultures and buz- 
zards, however, have shorter claws and live upon carrion. 

Psittaci (parrots).— Only one species of parrot is 
found in the United States— the Carolina paroquet; about a 
foot in length, green, with yellow head and neck and 
orange-red face. 

11 



ZOOLOGY 

Coccyges (cuckoos and kingfishers). — This is a 
small group of birds without any definite bond of union. 
The commonest members of the group are the yellow-billed 
and black-billed cuckoos or "rain-crows," long-tailed, slen- 
der, drab birds, which lay their eggs in the nests of others; 
and the belted kingfisher, a thick-set, heavy-billed, ashy 
blue-and-white bird, familiar along streams. 

Pici (wood-peckers).— The wood-peckers have strong 
stout bills fitted for driving or boring into wood, and long, 
sharp-pointed and barbed tongues, fitted for spearing in- 
insects. The feet have two toes turned forward and two 
backward; the tail feathers are stiff and sharp-pointed and 
help support the bird as it clings to the vertical side of a 
tree trunk. 

Macrochires (wliippoorwllls, chimney-swifts 
and humming birds). — All the birds of this order have 
long-pointed wings and are remarkable flyers — catching 
their food on the wing, or in the case of the humming, ex- 
tracting it from flower-cups. 

Passeres (the perchers).— Nearly half the North 
American birds belong to this great order. It includes all 
our common song-birds and a great majority of the birds 
of the forest, field and garden. 

MAMMAIvIA. 

The mammals constitute the highest group of animals, 
including man, the monkeys and apes, the quadrupeds, the 
bird-like bats and fish-like seals and whale. The name 
mammalia is derived from the mammary or milk glands 
possessed by the female for the purpose of nourishing the 
young after birth. Mammals differ from the fishes and 
batrachians and agree with reptiles and birds in never hav- 
ing external gills. L<ike birds, they are warm blooded, 
and have a heart with two distinct auricles and ventricles 

12 



ZOOLOGY 

and a complete double circulation. They differ from all 
other groups of animals in having- the body more or less 
clothed with hair, the lungs and heart freely suspended in 
a thoracic cavity separated from the abdominal cavity by a 
muscular membrane, the diaphragm, and in the possession 
of mammary glands. 

Body Form and Structure. —In mammals there is 
great variety of form and general organization, due to pe- 
culiar adaptation to the varied conditions of life. Most 
mammals are clothed with hair, but in whales the hair is 
practically absent; in elephants it is very sparse, and in 
porcupines it assumes the form of spines or quftls. There 
are never more than two pairs of legs, and in most cases 
these are adapted to terrestial locomotion; in the bats the 
forelimbs are modified into organs of flight; in the seals, 
sea-lions, walruses and whales, both sets are modified to 
be swimming flippers or paddles. In many of these aqua- 
tic forms the hind limbs are greatly reduced or even com- 
pletely wanting. 

The number of digits varies in different mammals. 
The normal number is five; in pigs the number is reduced 
to four; in the tapir there are four on the front feet, but 
only three on the hind foot; in the rhinocerous there are 
three on both fore and hind foot; in the cow there are only 
two toes with rudiments of two more, and in the horse there 
is only one with vestiges of two more in the splint bones. 

The teeth are divided into three groups; (a) the incis- 
ors, with sharp cutting edges and simple roots, situated in 
the center of the jaw; (b) the canines, often conical and 
sharp-pointed, next to the incisors; (c) the molars, broad 
and flat-topped, for grinding, and divided into premolars 
and true molars. The number and arrangement of the 

13 



ZOOLOGY 

teeth vary considerably, and are much used in classification, 

being expressed by a dental formula, as for example, in the 

case of man: 

2 — 2 1 — 1 2 — 2 3 — 3 

i , c , p , m = 32. 

2 — 2 1 — 1 ^2 — 2/ 3 — 3 

The alimentary canal varies in length and arrange- 
ment with the diet and habits of the animal. The oesopha- 
gus is always a simple straight tube, but the stomach may 
be divided into several distinct chambers, as in whales and 
the ruminants. The intestine in vegetarian animals is 
very long, being in the cow twenty times as long as the 
body. In the carnivorous animals it is comparatively short, 
being in a tiger, for example, but two or three times the 
length of the body. 

There is a complete double circulation, the blood mak- 
ing one circuit from the right ventricle through the lungs 
to the left auricle, thence to the left ventricle, and a second 
circuit from the left ventricle throughout the body and back 
to the right auricle, thence to the right ventricle. 

Air is taken in through the nostrils or mouth and car- 
ried through the windpipe (trachea) and a pair of bronchi to 
the lungs, where it gives up its oxygen to the blood and 
takes up carbon dioxide gas in turn. At the upper end of 
the trachea is the larnyx or voice box, consisting of several 
cartilages and enclosing two membranous vocal chords. By 
a change in the relative position of these cartilages, the 
chords can be tightened or relaxed, brought together or 
moved apart as required, to modulate the tone and volume 
of the voice. 

The kidneys are compact and definite in form, and, ex- 
cept in the Monotremes, discharge their product through 
paired ureters into a bladder, whence the urine passes from 
the body by a single medium urethra. The male reproduc- 

14 



ZOOLOGY 

tive glands (testes) in most orders are not held in the abdo- 
minal cavity, but in a fold or pouch of the skin, the scrotum. 
The males are provided with a special organ of copulation, 
the penis. The ovaries of the female are in the abdomen 
or pelvis, and the ova, when discharged, are caught by the 
oviducts. The oviducts are divided into three parts: (a ) 
a contracted upper part called the fallopian tube, which 
conducts the ova down into (b) an expanded thick-walled 
part called the uterus, in which the developing embryo lies; 
and (c) a canal called the vagina, leading to the exterior. 

The brain reaches its highest development in mammals, 
and is characterized by the preponderance of the cerebrum 
over the other parts. In man and the higher mammals the 
surface of the cerebrum is thrown into convolutions; among 
the lower mammals it is smooth. Touch, taste, smell, 
hearing and sight are highly developed. A large and con- 
vex outer ear serves to collect the sound-waves and to 
transmit them to the tympanic membrane, whence a chain 
of three tiny bones transmits the waves across the middle 
ear to the inner ear, which is composed of three semi-circu- 
lar canals and a spiral cochlea. The eye is protected by 
two movable lids, and in almost all mammals below man 
there is a third lid or nictitating membrane. In some bur- 
rowing rodents the eye is entirely vestigal and concealed 
beneath the skin. 

Life History. — All mammals, except the Monotremes, 
give birth to free young. The Monotremes, of which there 
are only two genera (Tachyglossus and Ornithorhyncus), 
lay eggs. In the other mammals the embryo develops in 
the uterus, and receives nourishment directly from the 
mother through the walls of the uterus to which it is inti- 
mately attached by placentae. In the kangaroos and opos- 
sums, (Marsupialia, there is no placenta). The duration of 

IS 



ZOOLOGY 

gestation or pre-natal development varies from three weeks 
in the mouse to twenty months in the elephant. All are 
nourished for a longer or shorter time by milk secreted by 
the mammary glands of the mother. 

Classification. — The lowest mammals are the extra- 
ordinary duckbills of Australia and Tasmania, constituting 
the order Monotremata. They are characterized by hav- 
ing horny toothless beaks; urinary and genital apparatus 
opening to the exterior through a cloaca, which is merely a 
continuation of the alimentary canal, as in birds; young 
developed from eggs, which are laid either in a burrow or 
deposited in an abdominal sack of the mother. 

Marsupialia. — To this order belong the opossums and 
kangaroos. In these the young are born in a very imma- 
ture state and transferred to the abdominal pouch or mar- 
supium of the mother. 

Edentata.— Armadilloes, ant-eaters and sloths, belong 
to this order. They have poorly developed teeth, some- 
times none at all, and possess limbs with large claws. The 
armadilloes and scaly ant-eaters are covered with an armor 
of bone, horn or scales, the sloths and ant-bears with hair. 

Rodents, or Gnawers. — Rabbits, porcupines, go- 
phers, squirrels, chipmunks, rats and mice compose 
this very large order of mammals. They are characterized 
by the peculiar arrangement of the teeth. There are no 
canines, a toothless space being left between tffe incisors 
and molars on each side. There are two incisor teeth in 
each jaw and these grow continuously and are kept sharp 
and of uniform length by ignawing on hard substances 
and constant rubbing on each other. The rodents are 
vegetarians. 

16 



ZOOLOGY 

Iiisectivora.— The mouse-like shrews and the moles 
belong to this order. They live upon insects. The moles 
live underground and have the fore feet wide and shovel- 
like for digging. 

Cheiroptera.—The bats live upon insects and are 
characterized by having the fore-limbs, especially the four 
fingers and forearms elongated and connected by a thin 
leathery membrane, which includes also the hind feet and 
usually the tail. 

Cetacea. — The dolphins, porpoises and whales are 
fish-like aquatic mammals. The posterior limbs are want- 
ing and the fore-limbs are developed into padd|ps without 
distinct fingers or nails. The tail ends in a broad horizon- 
tal fin or paddle. They are all predaceous. The Sirenia, 
including the Dugong and Manatee or Sea Cow, are like 
the Cetacea, except that they are herbivorous. 

Ungulata. — This order includes all the familiar hoofed 
mammals. They are all herbivorous, and have their molar 
teeth fitted for grinding, the canines being absent or small. 
The order is divided into the Perissodactyla or odd-toed 
forms like the horse, zebra, tapir and rhinoceros, and the 
Artiodactyla, or even-toed forms like the oxen, sheep, deer, 
camels, pigs and hippopotami. The Artiodactyla comprise 
two groups, the ruminants and non-ruminants. A rumi- 
nant first presses its food into a ball, swallows it into one 
division of the four-chambered stomach, and later on regur- 
gitates it into the mouth, thoroughly musticates it and 
swallows it again, but into another stomach chamber. 
From here it passes through the other two into the intestine. 

Ferae.— The carnivorous mammals, such as lions, ti- 
gers, cats, wolves, dogs, bears, panthers, foxes, weasels, 
seals, etc., etc., all feed upon animal substance, and are 

17 



ZOOLOGY 

predatory, pursuing and killing their prey. They are mostly 
fur-covered; have usually five toes provided with strong 
claws, which are retractile, and have large curved and 
pointed canine teeth. 

Primates. — The highest order of mammals includes 
the lemurs, monkeys, baboons, apes and man. The chief 
structural characteristics which distinguish man from the 
rest of the primates, are the great development of his brain 
and the non-opposibility of ^ the great toe. 




18 



ZOOJLOGY 
OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

(SIXTH PAP^R.) 

1. What animals are included under the head reptilia? 

2. What are the general characteristics of reptilia? 

3. Why is not the common joint-snake classified as a snake instead 
of as a lizard? 

4. Salamanders are often mistaken for lizards. How do you dis- 
tinguish between them? 

5. Compare the circulation of reptilia with that of batrachians. 

6. Why can a snake swallow such large objects as it does? 

7. How do poisonous snakes make use of their poison? 

8. What poisonous snakes are found in the United States? 

9. What enables the chameleon to change color? 

10. What is the pineal eye? 

11. Give the general characteristics of birds. 

12. What different kinds of feathers are found on birds? 

13. In what ways does the structure of a bird make it especially 
adapted to flying? 

14. What is the syrinx of birds? 

15. What sense organs are well developed in birds? ^ 

16. How do birds reproduce their kind? Define the terms precocial, 
altricial. 

17. What are the leading characteristics of mammals? 

18. What different kinds of teeth have mammals and how may the 
number and arrangement be expressed? 

19. Describe the circulation in mammals. 

20. In what way is the brain of mammals more highly developed 
than in lower forms? 

21. What mammals lay eggs? 

22. What is the mode of development of the young in the higher 
mammals? 

23. Name the principal orders of mammals. 

24. What are the lowest forms of mammals and how do they differ 
from the higher forms? 

25. What animals belong to the Marsupialia and what are their 
special characteristics? 

26. Name several rodents. How may they be distinguished from 
other mammals? 

27. How do the wings of bats differ from those of birds? 

28. Why is the whale classified as a mammal instead of a fish? 

29. Name several common ungulates and state whether they belong 
to the sub-order perissodactyla or artiodactyla. 

30. What is a ruminant? 

31. Name several carnivorous animals and give their charactertics. 

32. What animals belong in the same order with man? 

33. How is man structurally differentiated from the other members 
of the order? 



19 



m 



PHYSICS. 

(SIXTH PAPKR.) 

The Frictional Electric Macliine consists of a 
plate of glass which revolves between stationary cushions, 
the surfaces of which are covered with an amalgam. Two 
metallic combs with pointed teeth are so placed, one on 
either side, that they nearly come in contact with the re- 
volving plate. The parts of the plate thus electrified are 
brought between the metallic combs. The prime con- 
ductor is electrified by induction. The negative conductor 
that carries the cushions is usually connected t^the earth. 
The potential energy of the electrification obtained by the 
use of this machine is equal to the kinetic energy ex- 
pended in turning the crank minus the energy that is 
transformed into useless heat. Frictional Klectric ma- 
chines with glass plates revol^'ing in opposite directions 
are made in great numbers. A. work of this kind pre- 
vents their description. 

Tlie t/iglitning Rod is a metallic conductor placed 
on a building as a protection against lightning. When an 
electric cloud floats over a buil illng the building is oppo- 
sitely electrified by induction This electrification tends 
to neutralize that of the cloud and escape from the pointed 
conductor. Its action may be too slow to prevent the dis- 
charge of lightning, but even then it tends to protect the 
building in that it offers a path of least resistance for the 
passage of the electric current. 

The Galvanometer is ati instrument used to meas- 
ure the strength of an electric current by means of the de- 
flection of the magnetic needle. It is so constructed that 






PHYSICS 

the deflection is in proportion to the strength of the cur- 
rent. The two essential parts then, are a magnet or a 
magnetic needle and a coil of wire. 

The Tangent Galvanometer resembles the multi- 
plier in appearance. It consists of a large vertical coil of 
wire in the center of which is a small compass needle or a 
needle suspended by a silk fibre. The needle is very short 
and is provided with a long pointer which moves over a 
graduated scale. The field of magnetic force around the 
needle is uniform. The strength of the current is pro- 
portional to the tangent of the angle of deflection and is 
found by multiplying the tangent of the angle of deflection 
by a constant whose value depends on the earth's mag- 
netic force, the dimensions of the coil and the number of 
turns of wire in the coil. 

The Astatic Galvanometer differs from the tangent 
galvanometer in that two equal magnetic needles are sus- 
pended by a fibre of unspun silk with their poles reversed. 
This arrangement almost entirely neutralizes the direct 
action of the earth. 

For industrial uses instruments called ampere- 
meters or ammeters are now much employed. The 
essential parts consist of a controlling magnet, a coil of 
wire and a needle. A pointer is attached to the needle and 
moves over a graduated scale. There is a great variety of 
ammeters in use, for the description of which the student 
is referred to technical works on the subject. 

The Galvanoscope.— The effect of a current on a 
magnetic needle is greatly increased by carrying an in- 
sulated wire many times around the needle. In this way 
it is an easy matter to detect the existence of a current, 
its direction and to measure its magnetism roughly. Such 
instruments are called multipliers or galvanoscopes. 



PHYSICS 

Faraday's L.aw of Induction.— '*If any conducting 
circuit be placed in a magnetic field, then, if a change of 
relative position or change of strength of the primary cur- 
rent cause a change in the number of lines of force pass- 
ing through the secondary, an electro-motive force is set 
up in the secondary proportional to the rate at which the 
number of lines of force included by the secondary is 
varying." 

Self Induction.— The current in a coil of wire, when 
its strength is changing, acts inductively upon itself. 
This action is called self induction. When the current 
starts self induction prevents it from rising instantly to 
its full strength; when the current stops self induction 
tends to prolong the flow. • 

Induction Coils. — The name induction coil is given 
to an apparatus in which a secondary coil is placed around 
a primary coil. The primary coil usually consists of a few 
turns of coarse wire; the secondary coil is composed of a 
great nuniber of turns of fine wire. An iron core is in- 
serted within the primary coil and it is evident that it will 
be magnetized and demagnetized every time the primary 
is made and broken. The core is utilized in the construc- 
tion of an automatic make and break piece. A soft iron 
hammer is connected with one of the terminals of the 
primary wire. The point of the hammer presses against a 
screw by means of which it closes the circuit. When a 
current passes through the primary coil the iron core be- 
comes magnetized and draws the hammer away from the 
screw, thus breaking the circuit. When the circuit is 
broken the core loses its magnetism, the spring causes 
the hammer to spring back, thus closing the circuit again. 
By this means the spring and hammer vibrate, opening 
and closing the primary circuit with great rapidity. 



PHYSICS 

Ruliinkorff 's Coil. — Ruhmkorff improved the induc- 
tion coil by adding a condenser consisting of alternate 
layers of tinfoil and paraffined paper. The effect of the 
condenser seems to be to prevent the formation of sparks 
at the make and break piece. It also adds greatly to the 
electromotive force of the induced current. 

To a certain extent the induction coil is a reversible 
machine. By experiment it has been shown that if a cur- 
rent of considerable strength but of weak electromotive 
force circulates in the primary, then variations in its 
strength give rise to very weak currents but of high 
electromotive force in the secondary. It may be said that 
the electromotive force increases nearly in the ratio of the 
number of turns in the two coils of wire. By means of the 
induction coil we are enabled to increase one of the factors 
at the expense of the other factor. The product of the two 
factors remains the same, however. 

The Transformer, or secondary generator, is sim- 
ply an induction coil used to change the relation of the 
number of volts to the number of amperes of any current. 
It is called a **step-down" or "step-up" transformer accord- 
ing as it is used to decrease or increase the voltage. The 
essential parts of a transformer are two coils of wire, one 
of which has more turns than the other, both of which are 
wound around a closed magnetic circuit. Its action cannot 
be better illustrated than in winding two coils of wire on 
opposite sides of an iron ring, one of which has ten times 
as many turns as the other. A current sent through either 
coil will magnetize the ring. If the current is interrupted 
or alternated it will induce currents in the other coil. If 
the coil with the few turns is the primary coil, the effect of 
the induction is to multiply the electromotive force by ten 
and to divide the strength of the current by ten. If, how- 

4 



PHYSICS 

ever, the other coil is the primary coil, then the effect is to 
divide the electromotive force by ten and to multiply the 
streng-th of the current by ten. Transformers are used 
when currents of high voltage are carried considerable 
distance, so that they may be delivered at a pressure suit- 
able for use. In electric lighting transformers are usually 
supported on the street poles. In this use they are em- 
ployed to reduce the high potential of the mains to a safe 
limit of voltage. 

Earth Induction is produced by the motion of a coil 
of wire about an axis placed at right angles to the direc- 
tion of the dip of the magnetic needle at the locality. The 
explanation is that the earth itself is a great magnet, and 
that its lines of force pass from pole to pole thl^ough the 
atmosphere. The rotation of the coil across the magnetic 
flux encircling the earth causes the coil to be alternately 
filled with and emptied of this flux. 

The Dynamo. — Mechanical energy may be trans- 
formed into electric energy by means of this device, the 
action of which is based on the principle of current induc- 
tion. A system of coils is made to revolve in a magnetic 
field so that there is a continuous variation in the number 
of lines of force passing through them. Thus a difference 
of potential is created in the system, so that if the points 
of different potential be connected by a wire, a current 
will be established in the circuit. The electromotive force, 
as well as the strength of the current, depends upon ( 1 ) 
the rapidity of the motion of the coils through the mag- 
netic field; (2) the number of turns of the wire; (3) the 
strength of the field. 

In the dynamo the inducing magnet is usually an 
electro-magnet, since its magnetic density can be made 
much greater than that of a permanent magnet; it is 

S 



PHYSICS 

called the field magnet. The coils of wire are generally 
made to move in front of the poles of the field magnet. 
These coils are the armature, and in this part of the 
circuit the electromotive force is generated, i. e., it may- 
be considered the source of the current. 

The current induced by rotating a coil in a field of 
force reverses in direction every half revolution, that is, 
an alternating current. It is changed into a continuous 
current by means of a commutator. This arrangement 
may be made by mounting two semi-circular segments on 
the axis or cylinder which revolves with the coil, liach 
end of the coil is joined to a segment. Strips of metal 
called brushes form the terminals of the external circuit 
and press upon the segment. The segments are arranged 
so as to change contact with the brushes, as the cylinder 
revolves, when the current reverses in the coil, so that the 
current in the exterior circuit always has the same di- 
rection. 

Dynamos may be divided into different classes accord- 
ing to the method by which their field magnets are ex- 
cited. The field magnet may be a permanent steel mag- 
net. This variety is seldom used because they cannot be 
made as powerful as an electromagnet having a soft iron 
core of equal mass. In another class of dynamos the field 
magnet may receive its current from a separate generator 
and not from the armature coils. In a series dynamo the 
coils of the field magnet are joined in series with the 
armature in such a manner that the entire current passes 
through the coils. In the shunt machine the field coil 
serves as a shunt to the external circuit. In this machine 
only a part of the current generated in the armature passes 
through the field coil. A dynamo is said to be compound 
wound when the field magnet is encircled by both series 
and shunt coils. 



PHYSICS 

The Electric Motor is similar to the dynamo or 
identical with it in construction. It is designed to change 
electric energy into mechanical work. The current from a 
dynamo, which may be quite distant, is sent through the 
armature of the motor which causes it to revolve in a 
direction opposite to that in which it would revolve if the 
motor was acting as a dynamo. The shaft of the armature 
is provided with a pulley which may be belted or otherwise 
attached to other machinery. Electric motors are made in 
a great variety of forms and for countless purposes. In 
the cities and larger villages they are placed on the circuit 
of powerful dynamos at central ''power houses." The 
convenience of the electric motor has led to its common 
use for the operation of light machinery, electric fans, etc. 

The Electric Railway.— The propulsion of the 
electric car is due to the generation of an electric current 
by means of powerful dynamos, its transmission over con- 
ductors to the electric motors on the cars and its conver- 
sion into mechanical energy. The electric current passes 
from the dynamo through a switch board, thence over the 
trolley wire to the car. A portion of the current passes 
down the trolley arm, along wires concealed in the car to 
the motor, through the motor, thence through the wheels 
to the rails and back to the switch board and dynamo. In 
some systems the rails serve as a return circuit, in others 
a wire laid between the rails is used. At each end of the 
car is a "controller stand" by means of which the resist- 
ance may be varied, thereby controlling the passage of the 
current through the motor and the speed of the car. There 
is also a reversing switch by means of which the rotation 
of the armature of the motor may be changed, thereby 
checking the car in cases of emergency or backing the car 
if necessary. 



PHYSICS 

The Electric Bell.—The fact that the current flow- 
ing- through an electromagnet can be controlled at will 
gives it practical value. In its use as applied to the ring- 
ing of a bell, a push button closes the circuit by pressing 
the metal end of a spring connected with one pole of the 
battery against a metal plate connected with the other 
pole. The armatmre has for its continuation the clapper 
which strikes the bell. When the push button is pressed 
in, a current flows through the coils of the electromagnet, 
then to the armature, which is pressed backward by a 
spring, and from thence to the battery. The armature is 
drawn forward by the electromagnet, causing the hammer 
to strike the bell. But the movement of the armature 
breaks the circuit, and the soft iron of the electromagnet 
is demagnetized; the armature is then thrown back by the 
action of the spring, again closing the circuit; it is then 
again attracted and released, thus vibrating rapidly and 
striking a blow upon the bell at every vibration. The 
rapidity pf the strokes depends largely upon the length of 
the pendulum-like hammer. 

A Fire Alarm Box contains a crank which is to be 
pulled down once by the person who turns in the alarm. 
By this motion of the crank a spring is wound up and 
when released it drives a train of wheel work that puts in 
revolution a make and break wheel. This make and break 
wheel is so constructed that on its circumference it has a 
series of notches which correspond to the number of the 
box. For example, if the number of the box is 256, there 
will be two notches sepai-ated by a larger interval, then 
flve notches, another interval and then six notches. This 
wheel and an arm that presses upon the circumference of 
the wheel are in the circuit. At each revolution of the 
wheel the circuit is broken as each notch passes under the 

8 



PHYSICS 

arm. When the circuit is broken an electromagnet at the 
central station is magnetized, causing the armature of the 
magnet to be drawn back by a spring and striking a blow 
upon a bell. A single revolution of the make and break 
wheel, then, will cause a succession of two strokes, five 
strokes and six strokes. The number on the box, 256, is 
thus indicated. The make and break wheel may revolve 
any number of times thus repeating the signal. The loca- 
tion of box 256 being known, valuable time is saved. 

The Electric Telegraph.— The system of telegraphy 
devised by S. F. B. Morse in 1844 is the one in general use. 
The essential parts of the electromagnetic telegraph are a 
line wire, a transmitter or key, an electromagnetic receiv- 
ing instrument and the battery or dynamo. It should be 
understood that instead of two lines of wires, one to con- 
vey the electric current away from the battery and another 
to return it to the battery, if the distant pole is connected 
with a large metallic plate buried in the earth or a metallic 
pipe leading to the earth, and the pole near the battery is 
connected in the same manner with the earth, only one 
wire will be needed to connect telegraphically two points 
that are distant from each other. The line wire most com- 
monly used is made of iron coated with zinc or copper. 
The battery usually consists of many gravity cells joined 
in series, though a dynamo may be used instead. 

The transmitter or key consists of a current interrupter 
which is manipulated by the operator. It consists essen- 
tially of a metallic lever pivoted near one end, and con- 
nected to the line by a screw, insulated from the base, and 
situated between the pivot and the knob of the lever. At 
the opposite end of the lever is a screw connected to the 
base and lever. When the operator presses his finger on 
the knob of the key the circuit is closed and the electric 

9 



PHYSICS 

current fills the wire instantly. When the key is not in 
use a switch is turned for the purpose of closing" the cir- 
cuit at that point. 

The sounder consists of an electromagnet and pivoted 
armature that plays up and down as the circuit is made 
and broken. The armature of the sounder is so arranged 
that it makes a clicking sound as it is moved to and fro by 
the electromagnet. These sounds are arranged to repre- 
sent letters and words by combinations of the short and 
long intervals between called dots and dashes. 

The Relay. — When the main line is very long- and 
there are many instruments in the circuit the resistance 
may be so great that the current of the main battery caTinot 
operate the sounder with sufficient energy to make the sig- 
nals audible. This difficulty is overcome by the use of the 
relay. It is an electromagnet whose coil forms part of the 
line wire. Its armature, when acted upon, opens and 
closes a local circuit in which are the local battery and 
sounder. The purpose of the relay, then, is to streng-then 
the current in a long wire which is too weak to operate the 
sounder. 

In the system just described, a wire can transmit only 
one message at a time. By what is known as the duplex 
system, a wire may be made to transmit two messages, 
one each way at the same time. The quadruplex system 
enables a wire to transmit four messages, two each way at 
the same time. The multiplex system enables the sending- 
of six or more messages in the. same direction at one time. 

Tlie Telephone.— Telephony is the art of reproduc- 
ing sounds at a distance from their source. The sensation 
of sound is due to the rapid fluctuations in the pressure of 
the atmosphere on the tympanum of the ear. If the fluc- 
tuations are irregular and non-periodic the sound is called 

10 



PHYSICS 

a noise; if they are regular and follow a sufficiently rapid 
periodic law the sound is musical. The telephone is an in- 
strument for the transmission of articulate speech by the 
agency of electric currents. The lines used for telephone 
purposes are, generally speaking, much the same as those 
used for ordinary telegraph. Copper and bronze wires are 
better adapted to telephonic purposes in that they offer a 
much lower effective resistance to the rapidly intermittent 
currents produced by telephonic transmitters. An element 
of great importance in connection with telephone lines is 
the induction from one line to another. If two lines hav- 
ing an earth connection at each end, as in ordinary teleg- 
raphy, run for any great distance parallel to each other on 
the same supports, a conversation which is being carried 
on throngh one of them can be easily heard by means of 
the telephones on the other lines. This is due to the fact 
that when a current is suddenly set up in one closed circuit 
it induces an instantaneous current in any other closed cir- 
cuit which is close to it. This is especially noticeable when 
telephone and telegraph wires run along the same route 
and are supported on the same poles. The best if not the 
only cure is to use return wires so arranged that the cur- 
rents induced in the outgoing wire shall be neutralized by 
the corresponding current induced in the incoming wire. 

The telephone receiver is a magneto-electric device. 
It consists of a coil of carefully insulated copper wire 
wound around one end of a permanent bar magnet. The 
terminals of the coil are connected with binding posts join- 
ing thus the main wire. A soft, flexible sheet-iron disk or 
diaphragm is held by a conical mouth piece across the face 
of the end of the magnet which bears the coil, near to but 
not touching it. The outer case is made of wood or hard 
rubber. 

11 



PHYSICS 

In the transmitter, back of the center of the diaphragm, 
is the point of a spring carrying a small platinum ball in 
touch with the diaphragm. Back of this another spring, 
insulated from it, carries a carbon button that rests lightly 
against the platinum ball. Then the ball, the button and 
the primary of an induction coil are placed in series in the 
circuit of a voltaic battery. "When a person speaks into 
the mouthpiece, the sound waves beat upon the diaphragm 
and cause it to vibrate. The variations in the circuit re- 
sistance, caused by the varying pressure and surface con- 
tact between the platinum and the carbon, cause variations 
in the primary current of the induction coil, and thus in- 
duce currents in the secondary, which it will be remem- 
bered is connected with the main circuit. The induced 
currents of course are similar to those in the primary 
which are produced by the diaphragm, and in turn set up 
vibrations in the diaphragm of the receiver, which accord- 
ingly sends off sound waves essentially the same as those 
which vibrated the diaphragm of the transmitter. The 
sound produced in the receiver is comparatively feeble but 
when close to the ear the sound is clear and the articulation 
remarkably distinct. 

An electric bell is placed at each station and is rung by 
a small magneto at the sending station for the purpose of 
attracting the attention of those at the receiving station. 
When the receiver is taken down from the hook, the up- 
ward motion of the hook cuts the magneto and the bells 
from the circuit. 

In many of the larger cities and villages it is neither 
practical nor desirable to connect each subscriber directly 
with all other subscribers, hence a system of ''exchange" 
has beeen adopted. An example is a central station to 
which wires are brought from the different subscribers. 

12 



PHYSICS 

Any two subscribers can be put in telephone communica- 
tion with each other when the proper pairs of wires are 
joined together at the central station. lyong- distance 
telephony has been so nearly perfected that it is an easy 
matter to carry on a conversation between places as far 
distant as Boston or New York or Chicag-o. 

The effects of an electric current may be classified as: 
Thermal, chemical, magnetic and physiological. 

Conductors may be heated by the electric currents 
which pass through them, the heating effect increasing 
with the resistance of the conductor. The heating effect 
also depends on the strength of the current and the time of 
the flow. Incandescent lamps operate on this principle, 
carbon filaments, or threads of carbonized bamboo being 
used in the circuit, which, because of high resistance be- 
come intensely heated to incandescence. The filament is 
bent into a loop and enclosed in a glass bulb from which 
the air is exhausted to prevent oxidation. The filament is 
practically infusible, but when lighted it throws off small 
particles and after a time the thread breaks. The ends of 
the filament are cemented to short platinum wires 
imbedded in the glass in such a way that connections are 
properly made when the bulb is screwed into the support- 
ing socket. The lamps are usually grouped in parallel 
circuit. 

The Voltaic Arc— If two pointed carbon rods are 
put in circuit with a powerful battery and their ends 
brought in contact, they will become red on account of the 
heat produced. If the ends are slowly separated the cur- 
rent still continues to pass in the form of a luminous arc 
known as the voltaic arc. 

The Arc Lamps used for the purpose of lighting 
streets, large halls, etc., is a device for automatically 

13 



PHYSICS 

separating- the carbon points when the current is turned 
on and for "feeding" the carbons together as their tips are 
burned away. The distance between the Carbons is usually 
about j4 of an inch. Such lamps require a current of from 
nine to ten amperes and a potential ranging from thirty- 
five to forty-five volts. The lamps are usually in series, 
thus increasing the resistance of the circuit. As many as 
one hundred lamps have been worked in series and an 
electromotive force varying from 3000 to 6000 volts is often 
required. 

The mechanism for feeding and separating the carbons 
consists essentially of a clutch washer, a clutch and an 
electromagnet, doubly and oppositely wound. The two 
cores of the electromagnet and their connecting yoke are 
so arranged that they can move up and down freely under 
the influences of magnetic attraction and gravity. At the 
start the carbons are in contact. When the current is 
turned on the rod that carries the upper magnet is raised 
by the action of the electromagnet. The arc is thus 
established. As the carbons wear away the arc increases, 
the lifting power of the electromagnet is weakened to some 
extent and gravity pulls the carbon downward. So del- 
icately have these devices been adjusted that the feeding 
of the carbons is imperceptible. The carbons used in the 
arc light are made of very dense coke carbon. 

Electrolysis is the process of decomposing a com- 
pound substance by passing electricity through it. One 
portion appears at the poiut where the current enters; and 
the other at the point where the current leaves the com- 
pound. The name electrolysis was given by Faraday. It 
is understood to refer only to the changes effected in a 
substance subjected to, but not given rise to, the electric 
current. 

14 



PHYSICS 

The points at which the electricity passes in and out 
are called electrodes (from L,. electrum, amber, and a 
Greek word meaning ''way.") The point of entrance, 
connected with the connecting plate of the battery, is the 
anode (upward way); the point of the exit, connected with 
the zinc, is the cathode (downward way). The sub- 
stances acted upon, or decomposed, are called the electro- 
lytes. The elements into which the electrolytes are sep- 
arated are called ions. Those which appear at the pos- 
itive electrode are called anions; those at the negative 
electrodes the cations. 

It is the law of electrolysis that the amount of decom- 
position that takes places in any given case, and the 
products depend upon: (1) The strength of the current; 
(2) the nature of the substances acted upon; (3) the ma- 
terial of which the electrodes are composed. Electrolysis 
can only occur when the substance is in a liquid or semi- 
liquid state, so that the particles can move freely. When 
a substance is electrolysed, those atoms which travel to- 
ward the positive electrode are electro-negative, and are 
known in chemistry as non-metals. Those going to the 
negative electrode are electro-positive, and are called 
metals. 

This, in brief, is a statement of the principles govern- 
.ng chemical effects of electricity. The principal uses 
of electrolysis are: (1) Electroplating, or covering 
cheaper metals with gold, silver, nickel, copper, etc.; (2) 
Electrotyping, i. e., making copies of printing types, wood 
cuts, medals, etc. ; (3) To extract metals from their ores, or 
form combinations with other metals. 

Electrotyping. — When it is desired to make an 
electrotype of matter that has been set up in type, an im- 
►^ ression or mold is made by pressing it into wax. Pow- 

15 



PHYSICS 

dered plumbago is applied to the surface of the wax mold 
to render it a conductor. A dilute bath of copper sulphate 
dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid is then made and the 
mold suspended in it. From the positive electrode of a 
galvanic battery a copper plate is suspended in the bath 
opposite and near to the face of the wax. By the action of 
the electric current the solution of copper sulphate is de- 
composed and the copper is deposited on the surface of the 
mold. When the copper film has acquired the thickness of 
an ordinary visiting card it is removed from, the mold. In 
order to give firmness to the plate it is then backed or 
filled in by means of type metal. By building it up to the 
height of type it is ready for the printer. 

Electroplating: differs from electrotypirig in that 
with the former the metallic coat remains permanently on 
the object on which it was deposited; with the latter it is 
intended to be removed. The bath in which the article to 
be electroplated is suspended is a solution of the salt to be 
deposited. The article is attached to the negative pole of 
the battery and a plate of the metal that is to be deposited 
is attached to the positive pole. The action that takes 
place is similar to that which takes place in electrotyping. 

Physiological Effects.— The first definite knowl- 
edge of the effect of electricity on muscular and nervous 
fiber is derived from the experiments of Humboldt. Aldini, 
his pupil, was the first to apply it to the treatment of dis- 
ease. Prof. C. Matteucei, of Pisa, made an extended and 
thorough series of experiments to determine the influence 
of the galvanic current upon animal tissue. Since he is 
an authority we give briefly some of his conclusions: (1) 
It excites sensation at one time and contraction at another, 
according to the direction in which it transverses a nerve; 
(2) It does not excite a nerve when passing through it 

16 



PHYSICS 

transversely; (3) When its influence is prolonged neither 
contraction nor sensation is produced; (4) It alone has the 
property of increasing- or diminishing the excitability of a 
nerve, according to the direction in which it is made to 
flow; (5) It has the power of awakening the excitability of 
a nerve after all other stimulants have ceased to act. 

Electric Firing of Explosives.— The heat pro- 
duced by the resistance offered by a conductor to the pas- 
sage of an electric current finds an important application 
in the firing of mines, blasts, torpedoes, etc. The current 
is carried by good conductors to the place where the ex- 
plosive material is placed. At this point the good con- 
ductors are connected by a thin platinum wire which 
passes through the explosive. When the current is turned 
on the platinum wire is heated to a white heat and the ex- 
plosion occurs instantly. Submarine mines and torpedoes 
are exploded by currents which can be controlled from the 
shore. 

The X-Ray. — In 1895 Roentgen accidentally discov- 
ered that when a Crookes bulb was subjected to an electric 
current non-luminous radiations emanated from it and 
after having passed through certain kinds of matter 
opaque to light was capable of producing photographic 
effects beyond. It was soon discovered that certain 
articles such as bone, glass, etc., are opaque to this form of 
radiation, while other articles such as paper, flesh, wood, 
etc., are quite transparent. After repeated experiments it 
was possible to produce a shadow photograph of the bones 
of the body or of any foreign material, opaque to light, 
in the body. Roentgen was unable to explain the nature of 
this new phenomenon and called it the X-Ray. No 
satisfactory explanation of this new radiation has as 
yet been given, but it is evident that its discovery has 
opened up a vast field of experimental research. 

17 



PHYSICS 

Wireless Telegrapliy. — In previous paragraphs we 
have discussed the subject of telegraphy in which the 
electric current was transmitted by means of wires. 
In this paragraph, however, we wish to say a few words, 
because space will not permit a full discussion, about the 
transmission of an electric current without the aid of 
wires. December 12, 1901, was a memorable day in elec- 
trical history. Memorable in the fact that on that day 
Marconi received by wireless transmission from a distance 
of 1800 miles the three simple pulses which signify "s" in 
the Morse code. The pivot of wireless telegraphy is the 
"coherer". It consists of a small glass tube at each end of 
which a wire enters. At the center of the tube these wires 
are almost in contact but are separated by a small amount 
of silver and nickel filings to which a trace of mercury has 
been added. The air has been exhausted from the tube in 
order that the contents may not corrode. Under ordinary 
circumstances the filings are loosely arranged but as soon 
as they receive an electrical current from an induction coil 
they cling together instantly and form a conducting bridge 
that carries a current from a local battery to a telegraph 
sounder. A self acting shaker restores the filings to their 
original state in a moment, when a second signal arrives 
and so on until the end of the dispatch. The coherer in its 
perfected form is due to many inventors among whom are 
Prof. Lodge, of Birmingham, Prof. Branly, of Paris, and 
others. A device much simpler and as essential to wireless 
or space telegraphy is due to Marconi himself. This is a 
vertical wire which he suspends in the open air and which 
serves as a lightning catcher for his messages. In his 
early experiments, for telegraphy across one mile, this 
wire was twenty feet long; for four miles forty feet, 
etc., the height depending on the telegraphic distance, 

18 



PHYSICS 

In his latest experiments these heights of the wire have 
been greatly reduced. Though not perfected as it will be 
in the very near future, nevertheless the triumph of 
Marconi is one of the most remarkable that has ever 
crowned mankind. 



^ 



19 



PHYSICS 
OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

(SIXTH PAPEIR.) 

1. Describe tne Frictional Kiectric Machine. How 
does a lightning- rod protect a building? 

2. Describe the Tangent Galvanometer. The Astatic 
Galvanometer. 

3. Give Faraday's laws of induction. What is meant 
by self-induction? 

4. Describe an induction coil. Ruhmkorff's coil. 

5. lixplain what is meant by electro-magnetic induc- 
'tion. What is earth induction? 

6. What is a dynamo? Explain the use of a trans- 
former. 

7. Name the different classes of dynamos. Describe 
each. 

8. In what respect does an electric motor differ from 
a dynamo? 

9. Describe the electric bell. The fire alarm box. 

10. lixplain the action of the telegraph. 

11. When and by whom was the system of telegraphy 
devised? 

12. Explain the action of the relay. 

-13. Describe the telephone, Explain its action fully. 

14. Describe the incandescent lamp. The arc lamp. 

15. What is the electrolysis? What are the principal 
uses of electrolysis? 

16. Define anode, cathode, electrolyte, ion. 

17. What is a metal? A non-metal? In what respect 
does electroplating differ from electrotyping? 

18. Name some of the physiological effects of electricity. 

19. What can you say of the X-Ray? What practical 
use is made of it? 

20. Describe the "coherer". Explain its action. 

20 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

(sixth paper.) 

THK AGE OF REVIVAIy. 

The Ag-e of Revival extends from the beginning- of the 
eleventh century to 1492, the year in which America was 
discovered. During- this period civilization advanced much 
more rapidly. A great impulse was given it by the revival 
of classical art and learning-, and by the inventions and 
discoveries. Probably the crusades were the most remark 
able undertakings of the age. 

THE EEUDAI, SYSTEM. 

During the time when the various German tribes were 
overrunning and conquering the western part of Kurope, 
the chiefs usually paid their followers by giving them por- 
tions of the conquered land, which became their absolute 
property. Each estate of this kind was called an allodium 
or freehold. Of course the chiefs kept land for themselves, 
and after a while it became customary for them to grant 
parts of this to different persons, on condition of their be- 
ing faithful and doing service in war. This land was called 
a fief, and was said to be held by a feudal tenure. It could 
be held only during the pleasure of the real owner and so 
long as the conditions agreed upon were kept. In the same 
way, the owners of the allods, or freeholds, gave away por- 
tions of their land to be held by feudal tenure, and so they 
gained liegemen or vassals of their own. Again, these 
vassals could have vassals of their own, and so on, although 
this subletting or subinfeudation, as it was called, was sel- 
dom carried ^beyond the fourth stage. Each vassal^^was 
bound to do military service and homage to his lord when 
called upon, and in return the lord gave him protection. 



GEXEBAIi HISTORY. 

Thus an elaborate system grew out of quite natural 
conditions. During the time when extreme lawlessness 
prevailed, the weaker persons were entirely at the mercy 
of the stronger, so that the freeholders usually found it to 
their advantage to surrender the property to some powerful 
lord and become his vassal, in order to receive protection. 
In like manner, churches, monasteries and cities became 
members of this system. By the eleventh century, it had 
spread into all the lands which had been conquered by the 
German tribes. It lasted throughout the Middle Ages, and 
finally passed away in the beginning of modern times. 

The theory of the system was that all the kings of the 
world were vassals of the emperor, who was God*s vassal 
(or the Pope's, as many maintained). The chief men were 
vassals of the king, and they in turn had many Vassals. In 
tim© of war, the king notified his chief men, they called 
upon their vassals, and so on down to the lowest rank. So 
in a very short time, this apparently well-organized army 
waa ready. 

But the ideal form of the system was never realized. 
The king was a mere puppet, the head of the system only 
in theory. The lords, kings in their territories, had much 
more power than he. If the lords stood by the king, then 
he had a strong support, but if they turned against him, 
then he could do nothing. Under the circumstances, a 
strong centralized government was impossible. The lords 
became lawless tyrants. With his strong castle as a fort- 
ress, each lord spent his time making war upon his neigh- 
bors. 

A fief was conferred by a peculiar ceremonj called 
Homage. The man would kneel with uncovered head, 
place his hands in those of his future lord, and solemnly 
vow to be henceforth his man, and to serve him faithfully 



GENERAL. HISTORY. 

even with his life. Then he took the oath of fealty, and 
then followed the act of investiture, where the vassal was 
put in actual possession of the land, or was given a clod of 
earth or a twig- to symbolize the delivery to him of the es- 
tate. In general terms, the duty of the vassal was service; 
that of the lord protection. Then there were certain money 
requirements, which later became a part of the system. 
These^were reliefs, fines upon alienation, escheats 
and aids. 

A Relief was a sum of money which an heir, upon 
coming into possession of a fief, must pay to the lord of 
the domain. A Fine upon Alienation was a sum of 
money paid to the lord by a vassal for permission 1^ substi- 
tute another vassal in his place. Escheat meant the fall- 
ing back of the fief into the hands of the lord through fail- 
ure of heirs. If this came about through disloyality or 
other misdemeanor, it was called forfeiture. Aids were 
sums of money which the lord (or suzerain ) could demand 
for unusual expenditures, such as the knighting of his eld- 
est son, the marriage of his daughter or the ransom of his 
own person in case he were made a prisoner of war. 

Now, the vassals, or fief holders, were but a small per 
cent of the population. Most of the people were agricul- 
tural serfs. There were many grades, and they differed 
from slaves, in that they were fixed to the soil, that is, they 
could not leave the estate, nor could their masters take 
them away. Each serf was given a cottage and about thirty 
acres of ground. For this he paid rent in kind and in per- 
sonal service — usually two or three days' work on the de- 
mesne or the lord's home farm. At his death, his property 
becomes his lord's. In some countries, though, the lord 
could take only the best animal or the best implement of 
the serf. This was called the heriot. 



GENEBAIi HISTORY. 

By the thirteenth century, the Feudal System began to 
decay for several reasons. ( 1 ) It was hated by the kings, 
for they had under it only a semblance of power. (2) It 
was hated by the people, because, under it, they were of 
less value than the game in the lord's hunting park. (3) 
The crusade weakened the power of the nobles, for, in order 
to raise money, many of them sold or mortgaged their es- 
tates. Then, too, many of them were killed, and their es- 
tates reverted to their suzerains. (4) The growth of the 
towns also checked the power of the nobles, for, as they 
grew stronger and more powerful, they could resist the tyr- 
anny of their suzerains and finally even declare their inde- 
pendence. (S) The changes in the methods of warfare, 
especially the use of gunpowder, made the yeoman foot- 
soldier the equal of the armor-clad knight. 

But, although Feudalism, as a system of government, 
gradually disappeared, it remained as a social organization. 
The nobles retained their titles, their privileges, their social 
distinction and, in many cases, their great estates. 

" CHIVAI^RY. 

Chivalry, the "Flower of Feudalism," was a military 
institution or order, the members of which, called knights, 
were pledged to the protection of the church and to the de- 
fense of the weak and oppressed. Its development was 
connected with Feudalism on its military side. It became a 
rule that all fief holders should fight on horseback. Chivalry 
was also greatly influenced by the church and received from 
it its religious forms, spirit and virtues. 

Chivalry seems to have received its first impulse from 
the body of vassal horsemen which Charles Martel orga- 
nized to repel the Saracens. Gradually its influence spread 
all over Europe. In 1095, the Council of Clermont decreed 
that every person of noble birth, on reaching the age of 

4 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

twelve, should take a solemn oath before a bishop that he 
would defend to the uttermost the oppressed, the widow and 
the orphan; and that women of noble birth should be his 
special care. 

The preparatory training of a knight was very thor- 
ough. From seven to fourteen, as page or varlet, he was 
kept mostly in the castle and instructed in manly and mar- 
tial duties, in religion and in knightly etiquette. At four- 
teen he became a squire or esquire. He could now accom- 
pany his knight to battle, carry his arms and fight if nec- 
essary. At twenty-one, he became a knight. After a long, 
fast and vigil, he listened to a long sermon on his future 
duties. Then kneeling, he vowed to defend religion and the 
ladies, to help the distressed and to be faithful to ms fellow 
knights. Then his arms and sword were given him, and 
the lord struck him on the shoulder with his sword, saying, 
"In the name of God, of Saint Michael and of Saint George, 
I dub thee knight; be brave, bold and loyal." 

The Tournament was the favorite form of amuse- 
ment during the age of Chivalry. It was a mimic battle 
between two companies of noble knights, armed usually 
with pointless swords or blunted lances. Victory belonged 
to him who unhorsed his antagonist or broke the greatest 
number of lances. The rewards for the victor were jewels, 
gifts of armor or horses, and the praise and favor of his 
lady love. The Joust was an encounter between two 
knights only, and was conducted with less ceremony. 

Chivalry had a refining and ennobling influence upon 
the people of the Middle Ages, an influence which has never 
entirely disappeared. It gave us that ideal of character 
which we hold today, one distinguished by the virtues of 
courtesy, gentleness, humanity, loyalty, magnanimity and 
fidelity to the plighted word. It also brought about that 



OENEBAL. HISTORY. 

feeling of tender veneration for women which characterizes 
the present age. On the other hand, there were some evils 
connected with the system. It was only the women of high 
birth who were to be considered, and men and women of the 
lower classes were treated with the utmost contempt and 
harshness. But, on the whole, the good results were prob- 
ably greater than the evil, for, while the evil parts of the 
system gradually diminished as time went on, the good 
parts were extended and developed. 

THE PAPACY AND THE EMPIRE. 

After the death of Charlemagne, as we have seen, the 
princes of the Carolingian house became so weak that the 
most powerful man in Western Europe was the Pope. For 
several centuries the papal power kept increasing, so that 
by the time Otto the Great and his successors appeared, 
there arose a dispute as to which had the higher power— 
the Pope or the Kmperor. There were three theories in re- 
gard to the question: (1) That they were equal, each in 
his own province, and each commissioned by God. (2) That 
the limperor was higher than the Pope in temporal affairs. 
They proved this by quotations from the Bible. For exam- 
ple: Christ's payment of the tribute money and his sub- 
mission to the Roman tribunal, and by the statement that 
the gifts of Pippin and Charlemagne to the Popes made 
them the vassals of the i^mperors. (3) That the Pope was 
higher than the Kmperor, for the reason that temporal 
affairs should always be subordinated to spiritual. This 
was also proved by quotations from the Bible. For exam- 
ple: "But he that is spiritual judgeth all things, yet he 
himself is judged of no man." Also the two powers were 
compared to the soul and the body; the soul or spiritual 
part naturally governs the body as the material part. Then 
the Donation of Constantine was mentioned, and the 

6 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

fact that Charlemagne had actually received the crown from 
the Pope. 

During the tenth and the eleventh centuries, the Pap- 
acy was in a very degraded state. Then followed a num- 
ber of powerful Popes, the most remarkable of whom was 
Hildebrand, or Pope Gregory the Seventh (1073-1085). 

Hildebrand firmly believed that the Pope was the supe- 
rior of the Kmperor, and in order to make this an actual 
fact, he brought about two great reforms. The first was 
the enforcement of celibacy among the clergy. Those who 
married thought they could transmit their offices and 
lands to their children, according to the feudal pjrinciples 
of heredity. This was, of course, a very bad thing. Be- 
sides this, he thought if they did not marry, they would be 
more attentive to the church. The second great reform was 
the correction of simony or the purchasing of a church of- 
fice. On account of feudal relatives, the lord had the right 
to fill church vacancies as he had to fill the vacancies in any 
other fief; also the person'nominated for appointment was, 
according to feudal law, required to pay a sum of money 
equal to the income from the church. The result was that 
vacancies were sold to the highest bidder, and the most un- 
suitable persons were chosen. In order to correct this evil, 
Gregory decreed that no person should receive investiture 
from temporal hands. If this decree should be disobeyed 
by an individual, he was excommunicated, and so cut off 
from all relations with the church and with his fellow men; 
if disobeyed by a city, province or kingdom, an interdict 
was placed upon it. In such a case the churches were closed, 
no bell could be rung, no marriage celebrated, no burial ser- 
vice performed. In those days these punishments rarely 
failed to have an immediate efi'ect. 



:m 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

One man, the Umperor Henry IV. dared to resist Hilde- 
brand. Whereupon he was formally excommunicated, and 
his subjects were released from their allegiance. He led an 
army into Italy, but no one would receive him, and his sub- 
jects turned against him. Finally, Henry was compelled to 
go to* Gregory at Conossa. Here, barefoot and clothed in 
sackcloth, he was compelled to wait in the snow three days 
before Gregory would admit him. Finally he was admitted 
and the ban of excommunication removed. Then Henry 
raised an army and sent Gregory into exile at Salerno, 
where he died. 

In 1122, the celebrated Concordat, at Worms, decreed 
that all bishops and abbots of the empire, after free canon- 
ical election, should receive the ring and staff, the symbols 
of their spiritual jurisdiction from the pope, but the E^m- 
peror should exercise the right of investiture by the touch 
of a sceptre, the emblem of temporal rights and authority. 
This was a compromise, but it was a moral victory for the 
church, for it saved it from complete secularization. 

THE CRUSADES (1096-1273). 

The Crusades were great military expeditions against 
the Mohammedans for the purpose of freeing the Holy 
L/and from their control and of establishing a I^atin King- 
dom in the east. There were four principal and four minor 
crusades, but besides these there were a children's crusade 
and other less important expeditions. 

There were a number of causes of these expeditions. In 
the first place, the Seljuk Turks had lately taken possession 
of the Holy I^and, and they insulted and persecuted in every 
way the pilgrims who came in great numbers to Jerusalem. 
They also destroyed and profaned many of the Christian 
churches. This naturally aroused intense indignation 
throughout jEJurope. Then at this time, private feuds be- 

8 



GENERAIL. HISTORY. 

came less intense, for in 1041 was declared the **Truce of 
God." An edict was issued, commanding all men to refrain 
from fig-hting- four days in the week, from Thursday night 
to Monday. Of course the Truce was not strictly kept, but 
it did a good deal to lessen that incessant petty warfare 
which had gone on for so long a time. But the people were 
not yet ready to become sedate citizens. They were filled 
with spirit and martial energy. They loved excitement and 
adventure. The crusades appealed to them directly, and so 
from worthy or unworthy motives, many thousands of per- 
sons set out for the Holy I^and. 

The Crusaders were favored by some special circum- 
stances. Just at this time the Hungarians were converted 
and the overland route to the east was opened. Then a good 
water route was soon made possible, for the increasing power 
of the Italian republics enabled the Christians to clear the 
Mediterranean of pirates. Then the Turks no longer were 
a firmly united people, but were quarreling among them- 
selves. These things greatly lessened the difficulties they 
had to encounter. 

In 1095 the eastern Kmperor sent letters to the Pope, 
asking aid, for the barbarians were even threatening Con- 
stantinople. A council was called>t Clermont, in France, 
at which Pope Urban himself was one of the chief speakers. 
It was an enthusiastic audience, and thousands pledged 
themselves to go forth to rescue the Holy I^and. The fol- 
lowing summer was the time appointed. 

The first to set out were about eighty thousand persons, 
under the leadership of Peter, the Hermit, and Walter, the 
Penniless. They were surprised by the Turks and almost 
all killed. The main body consisted of about three hundred 
thousand men with the following noted leaders: Raymond, 
Count of Toulouse; Hugh of Vermandois, brother of the 



GENERAlL,^HISTORY. I 



king of France; Robert, Duke of Normandy; Godfrey of 
Bouillon; Bohemond, prince of Otranto, and his nephew 
Tancred, the "mirror of knighthood." They captured Ni- 
caea in 1097 and Antioch in 1098, and, after many hardships 
and adventures, Jerusalem in 1099. There followed a ter- 
rible slaughter of the Saracens, and then the soldiers took 
possession of all their property. As soon as possible, they 
organized a model feudal state, which they called the I^atin 
Kingdom of Jerusalem. Godfrey of Bouillon was placed at 
the head, but the only title he would accept was that of 
**Baron of the Holy Sepulcher." Shortly afterwards (1099) 
an immense army of Mohammedans was collected and ad- 
vanced against the little Christian army on the plains of 
Ascalon, not far from Jerusalem. Strange to say, the 
Christians were victorious. This is the last great battle of 
the First Crusade. After it, many of the warriors returned 
home and aroused those who had not gone by the wonderful 
tales they had to tell. 

The position of the little kingdom continued to be a 
precarious one, yet they managed to extend their boundar- 
ies in every direction. About this time, the orders of Hos- 
pitalers and Templars were formed. The objects of both 
were the care of the sick and wo'Unded crusaders, the enter- 
tainment of Christian pilgrims, the guarding of the holy 
places, and ceaseless battling for the cross. 

The seizure of Kdessa in 1144 by the Turks, again 
roused Western Europe. The second crusade was preached 
by Bernard of Clairvaux (1147) and led by L<ouis VH, King 
of France, and Conrad HI, EJmperor of Germany. Most of 
their followers were destroyed in Asia Minor, and, after 
unsuccessfully besieging Damascus, they returned hom- 
(1149). 

10 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

In 1187, Jerusalem was captured by Saladin, the Sultan 
of Egypt. A new army was gathered, led by Frederick 
Barbarossa of England, Philip Augustus of France, and 
Richard I. of England. Frederick was drowned while cross- 
ing a stream in Asia Minor, and most of his army returned 
home. The other two kings, after a long and costly siege, 
took Acre, but soon afterwards Philip quarreled with Rich- 
ard and returned home. After two years of fighting, Rich- 
ard concluded a truce of three years and eight months with 
Saladin, which gave the Christians free access to the holy 
places during that time. 

The Fourth Crusade resolved itself into an attack upon 
Constantinople, in behalf of the son of the deposed emperor. 
The city was taken and a L/atin Empire establi%hed. But 
this lasted only about half a century. It was then recap- 
tured by the Greeks, who held it till its final capture by the 
Turks in 1453. 

The minor crusades accomplished almost nothing, and 
finally all of the places belonging to the I^atin Kingdom 
were retaken by the Turks. 

The Results of the Crusades. The papal power 
was greatly increased, for the popes had taken a very prom- 
inent part in these expeditions. The monasteries became 
very wealthy, for many gifts were made to them, and on 
their return many of the crusaders entered the monasteries 
and gave them their property. The towns gained greatly 
by the crusades, for, by lending money to the nobles, they 
were enabled to obtain valuable charters. A great impulse 
was given to commerce, and many acts, inventions and 
manufactures were introduced from Asia. Again, the cul- 
tured nations of the east certainly had a refining influence 
upon the crusaders and upon the literature of Europe. Fi- 
nally, the crusades awakened interest in geography and led 

11 



GENEBAIL. HISTORY. 

to the many discoveries and explorations that were made 
shortly afterwards. 

SUPRE^MACY O^ THB PAPACY. 

The most important of the successors of Pope Gregory 
VII. were Alexander III. and Innocent III. A very im- 
portant event in connection with Alexander III. was his 
contest for temporal supremacy with the Kmperor Fred- 
erick Barbarossa. The Emperor was finally compelled to 
seek the pardon of the Pope, which he received after due 
humiliation. Pope Innocent III. had a similar experience 
with Philip Augustus of France. Philip had divorced his 
wife and married again and the Pope made him take back 
his first wife. Again, King John of England made a fav- 
orite of his own Archbishop of Canterbury. In the dis- 
pute which followed, England was put under an interdict 
and John was finally compelled to yield. He acknowledged 
the Pope as the suzerain of England and Ireland and 
offered to pay an annual sum of a thousand marks sterling. 
Innocent received a good deal of help from the Franciscan 
and Dominican monks. Their work was the salvation of 
the others. The Franciscans labored chiefly among the 
poor, relieving their poverty and their suffering; the Dom- 
inicans, among the cultured classes, working chiefly 
against heresy. The Popes finally destroyed the power of 
the Empire by taking advantage of the different elements 
of weakness in it. Frederick II. was the last world-emperor. 
In the fourteenth century France, Germany and England 
successively revolted against the temporal authority of 
the Pope. In 1309, the papal seat was removed to Avignon 
in France. This was unfortunate for the papacy became 
local instead of universal. In 1377, it was restored to 
Rome, but the new Pope, Urban VI, angered the cardin- 
als and they set up an anti-pope. This took away much of 

12 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

the respect that had been given by the people to the Pope. 
The council of Constance finally settled the matter. Today 
the Pope is supreme head of the church in all spiritual 
matters and there can be no appeal by his churchmen from 
his decision. 

THK li^Ai,!, OF constantinopi^e;. 

The last great invasion of Europe by barbarian hordes 
was made in the middle of the thirteenth century by the 
Ottoman Turks. They gradually obtained possession of 
most of Asia Minor and the country east of it. Their con- 
quests were largely due to the services of the Janizaries, a 
a body of troops composed of the children of Christian 
captives. As their conquests began to extendinto I^urope, 
an allied army composed of French, Polish and Hungarian 
warriors tried to stop them. They met them at Nicopolis 
in Bulgaria, where the allied army met with a disastrous 
defeat (1396). After this, the Turks were defeated by the 
Mongols, and Constantinople was saved for awhile. But 
in 1453, the city was besieged and finally taken by 
Mohammed II, the Great. 

the: growth of towns. 

The towns began to be powerful as soon as they could 
obtain charters for themselves. About the middle of the 
eleventh century, most of the people belonged to one of 
two fraternities or gilds, called the Gild Merchant and the 
Craft Gilds. The Gild Merchant was formed first and its 
members acquired social and political prominence. L<ater 
the craftsmen began to form separate associations and to 
clamor for a share in the municipal government. Finally 
the craftsmen triumphed and the Gild Merchant was re- 
duced to a subordinate place. 

About the middle of the thirteenth century some of the 
Germans formed alliances for their traveling merchants 

13 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

from pirates and robbers who were so very numerous. In 
a little while, a firm organization was made called the 
Hanseatic lycague. It organized armies and navies and 
was very powerful for a time. Finally it was dissolved 
when the need which created it had disappeared. 

The Italian cities had the most remarkable develop- 
ment. As there was no central authority in Italy, the 
cities had a better chance to grow. Then their fortunate 
trade with the east made them immensely wealthy and 
powerful. Organizing a confederation known as the I^om- 
bard I^eague, they dared to resist the tyrannical demands 
of the Kmperor and won a great victory at I^egnano (1176). 
By the Peace of Constance (1183), the power of the Em- 
peror over the cities, was reduced to almost nothing. But 
still there were other elements of discord. Those who 
sympathized with the Pope were called Guelphs, and 
those who supported the cause of the Emperor, Ghilb- 
ellines. The struggle between these parties was ex- 
tremely biter. Constant fighting finally made it possible 
for usurpers to sieze the supreme power in the cities, and 
their wickedness and tyranny made them thoroughly 
hated. The most famous of the Italian cities were Venice, 
Genoa, and Florence. 

THB; UNIV^RSITIE^S AND THE) SCHOOI^Ml^N. 

When the intellectual life began to be quickened, the 
monastery schools were no longer found sufficient and so 
schools were organized where the instruction was 
altogether secular. About the thirteenth century, royal 
and papal charters were given the earliest universities. 

A peculiar system of philosophy which sprang up in 
these schools was called Scholasticism. The idea was to 
build up a science of theology and so they attempted to 
prove ( not to discover) every doctrine of the church. The 

14 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

most noted of the early schoolmen were EJrigena, Saint 
Anselm, and Peter Abelard. Scholasticism gradually de- 
clined in the fifteenth century. Their discussions became 
frivolous and trifling. But they had done good work. 
Their system had stimulated the minds of men and made 
them adepts in careful and exact reasoning. Then when 
they referred constantly to the reason, they were prepar- 
ing the way for the declaration of the principle of the 
freedom of thought. 

Th^ re^naissance). 

Myers defines the term Renaissance as ''that new en- 
thusiasm for classical literature, learning, and art which 
sprang up in Italy towards the close of tl^ middle ages, 
and which during the course of the fifteenth and sixteenth 
centuries gave a new culture to Kurope. It was a kind of 
intellectual revolt against mediaeval ascetism." This 
came about gradually, but there were several events in 
particular that foreshadowed the Renaissance. Charle- 
magne and his efforts in regard to education is one of 
these. The Crusades, in that they helped to rouse the 
mediaeval mind from its sluggishness, is another. Then 
as soon as their language began to be settled, the different 
nations began to have literatures of their own. Had not the 
Albigensians been utterly crushed, it is probable that the 
Renaissance would have begun there for that movement 
was intellectual, social, and literary as well as religious. 
Again, Frederick II. received the Albigensian exiles, 
founded the University of Naples, and in general, was a 
patron of literature. But this ''Sicilian Revival" also 
came to an end. Dante was indeed the forerunner of the 
Renaissance. His "Divine Comedy" has been called the 
IJpic of Mediaevalism. 

IS 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

The Renaissance had its beginning in Italy. This was 
due to the influence of the Italian cities and to the fact 
that so many races were gathered -there for these things 
helped to rouse their minds. Again, secular and practical 
studies were pursued in the universities and finally they 
were being constantly reminded of the former grandeur of 
Rome, by the various monuments of civilization to be seen 
in all parts of the peninsula. 

The movement had two phases, **the revival of clas- 
sical learning and literature called Humanism, and (2) 
the revival of classical art." Petrarch, the first of the 
Humanists, created great enthusiasm for antiquity and he 
had many eager followers, the most important of whom 
was Boccaccio. They searched for all the old manuscripts 
and so saved many that would otherwise have been lost. 
They founded libraries, among them, the Medicean and 
Vatican lyibraries. Their work was greatly aided by the 
invention of printing in the fifteenth century. 

As usual, the immediate effects of the Renaissance 
were harmful. People became irreligious and immoral. 
But it influenced the developement of national literatures 
and eventually gave an impulse to religious reform. 
the; growth of thj^ nations. 

In considering this question, only those events will be 
mentioned which either brought about or prevented nation- 
ality. 

England. Through the misconduct of King John, 
Philip of France deprived him of his French possessions, 
and he was unable to regain them (1202-1204). This relieved 
the English from their vassalage to a foreign prince. In 
1215, John was forced to sign the Magna Charta, the great 
instrument of the liberties of the J^nglish people. It denied 
the right of the king to impose taxes, to punish a man with- 

16 



OENEBAL, HISTORY. 

out the judgment of his peers, and, in general, it did away 
with many of the existing abuses. Although this was 
broken again and again later, it proved to be a powerful 
instrument against the tyranny of the kings. 

The second important step taken taken in l^nglish con- 
stitutional freedom was in 1265, when the House of Com- 
mons was established. On account of the oppressive tyr- 
anny of Henry HI, EJarl Simon, the son of Simon de Mont- 
fort, called together two knights from every county and two 
citizens from every city or village. At first the House of 
Commons, unused to its new dignity, was entirely overawed 
by the House of I^ords. But eventually it became the prin- 
cipal branch of the British Parliament. 

By the year 1282 the Welsh had been reduq^d to submis- 
sion, and then trouble followed with Scotland on account of 
a dispute over the succession. They appealed to Edward I,, 
and he decided in favor of Balliol, with the understanding 
that he was now the vassal of England. The Scots soon 
became dissatisfied, and a revolt occurred, led by Sir Wil- 
liam Wallace. Although he was captured and killed, Rob- 
ert Bruce continued the war, and in 1314 nearly annihilated 
the English army at Bannockburn. The Scots were then 
independent till 1603, when James VI. became James I. of 
Britain. 

The Hundred Years War (1338-1453) was brought about 
by Edward Hi's claiming the throne of France. His mother 
was the daughter of Philip the Fair, but the nobles of France 
set aside his claims. The battle of Crgcy is memorable, 
because * 'feudalism and chivalry there received their death- 
blow." The English yeoman proved the equal of the armor 
clad knight. In 1346 the English captured Calais, which 
gave them control of the commerce in the Channel and a 
good landing place for their troops. In 1346 the English 

17 



GENEBAr. HISTORY. 

won another great victory at Poitiers, in which the French 
king and his son were taken prisoners. The Treaty of 
Bretigny (1360) gave the king his liberty, on his paying a 
great ransom. In 1415 the battle of Agincourt was won 
by the Knglish King, Henry V., after which the Treaty of 
Troyes decreed that on the death of the ruler, Charles V. , 
the throne was to go to the I^nglish King. But when he 
did die, the French refused to obey the treaty, and through 
the inspiration of Joan of Arc, the l^nglish were gradually 
driven out of France. 

The real national life of IJngland begins at this time. 
A common cause drew the people together, and the need for 
much money made it possible for the House of Commons to 
gain many privileges in return for its payment. This 
power was still further increased by the Wars of the Roses 
)1455-1485,) for so many nobles were slain and so many were 
impoverished, that the Commons and the King could take 
advantage of it. Thus gradually a strong centralized gov- 
ernment was formed, and Kngland became truly a nation. 

France. In 1302, Philip the Fair called together rep- 
resentatives of the people to help him in his quarrel against 
the Pope. Parliament, or the States General, then con- 
sisted of the nobles, the clergy and the Third Instate. 

In France, also, the Hundred Years' War proved disas- 
trous to the nobles, increased the power of the King and 
the people and awakened a feeling of nationality. 

Spain. Spain was made up of a number of petty 
states, but in 1469 Ferdinand of Aragon married Isabella of 
Castile, and the two most important provinces were united. 
Their great idea was to drive the Moors out of Granada, 
and they did reduce them to subjection in 1492. This marks 
the end of Mohammedan rule in the Spanish peninsula. 
So ardent did the Spanish become in defense of the Chri§- 

18 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

tian religion, that the Inquisition was established to find 
out and punish all heretics. Probably it was their religious 
zeal, more than anything else, that brought a national 
feeling to Spain. 

Germany. The trouble between the Popes and the 
Kmperors prevented the forming of a nation of Germany. 
When Frederick Barbarossa died, there were two or three 
hundred virtually independent states within its boundaries. 

Italy. A national government was not established in 
Italy by the close of the Middle Ages, chiefly because of the 
rivalry between the Pope and the Eimpire. 




19 



GENERAL HISTORY. 
OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

(SIXTH PAPER.) 

1. Define the word escheat. 

2. What is Feudalism? 

3. Give the causes of its decline. 

4. Of what benefit to the world was Chivalry? 

5. E^xplain the reforms of Pope Gregory VII. 

6. What was the significance of his contest with Henry 
IV? 

7. What was the cause of the First Crusade? 

8. What was its result? 

9. When and why was Jerusalem lost by the Chris- 
tians? 

10. How was civilization affected by the Crusades? 

. 11. Explain the trouble between Frederick Barbarossa 
and the Pope. 

12. Define Scholasticism. 

13. What great events brought nationality to England?. 

14. Of what importance was the founding of the Third 
Estate? 

15. Vv^'hat was the purpose of the Inquisition? 

16. What was the effect of the Wars of the Roses? 
"* 17. When and by whom was Constantinople taken? 

18. Who were the leaders of the Third Crusade? 

19. ,Tell about the growth of the towns. 

20. Who were the Guelphs and the Ghibellines? 



20 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 

(SIXTH PAPER.) 

"In education the process of self-development should 
be encourag-ed to the fullest extent. Children should be 
told as little as possible and induced to discover as much 
as possible." 

AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. 

The Constitution was not wholly satisfactory to all the 
States. There was a feeling that it was not specific enough 
to form a sure protection to individuals in securing their 
"inalienable rights." 

To satisfy this feeling, ten amendments wer£ proposed 
by the first Congress, which were ratified by the L<egis- 
latures of three-fourths of the several States and became a 
part of the Constitution, December 1791. They are some- 
times called the Bill of Rights, because they are similar, 
in thought, to the Bill of Rights which the English Par- 
liament required William and Mary to sign, when, in 1689, 
they were called to the throne. Five others were adopted 
later. 

The amendments are not a part of the Constitution 
proper. They are numbered as distinct articles. But the 
provisions contained in them are just as binding as those 
of the Constitution itself. 

Article I.— Congress shall make no law respecting an es- 
tablishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise there- 
of; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or 
the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition 
the government for redress of grievances. 

Evidently the States are not restricted by this article ; 
but they are not likely to violate the spirit of it. 

1 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 

Freedom to worship according to the dictates of one's 
conscience is guaranteed ; but we have no right to do an 
unlawful act as a part of our religion. If a religious sect 
practices polygamy, this amendment is no defense, be- 
cause polygamy is unlawful. 

Freedom of speech is guaranteed, but this is no defense 
for scandal ; freedom of the press is guaranteed, but this 
is no defense for libel. In all our freedom the rights of 
others must be respected, else we lose our right to freedom. 

The right of the people to hold meetings, peaceably, is 
guaranteed. Sometimes peaceable meetings are broken 
up by the police, or are restrained by injunction, on the 
ground that they tend to incite men to acts of violence. 

Article II. — A well-regulated militia., being necessary 
to the security of a free State ^ the right of the people to keep 
and bear arms shall not be infringed. 

This refers to the unorganized militia. The citizens, 
and not the regular army, are the surest defense of the 
Republic. They should be permitted, therefore, to possess 
arms in order to be familiar with their use. • 

To forbid the carrying of "concealed weapons," is not 
in violation of this clause. 

Article III. — No soldiers shall, in time of peace, be 
quartered in any house,, without the consent of the owner, nor 
in time of war, hut in a manner to be prescribed by law. 

The wrong of assigning soldiers to a house for food 
and shelter, without the consent of the owner or occupant, 
is apparent. In time of war the nation might, through 
legislation, demand such entertainment, but appropriate 
rules would be followed, in connection with the plan, which 
would take away its objectionable features. 

Article IV, — The right of the people to be secure in their 
persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable 



ClVir^ GOVERNMEJ^T 

searches and seizures^ shall not be violated^ and no warrants 
shall issue ^ hut upon probable cause, supported by oath or 
affirmation^ and particularly describing the place to he 
searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 

"A man's house is his castle." A man's person and 
possession might almost be called sacred. If a slight sus- 
picion were sufficient ground for searching a person's 
house and effects, and it could be done under a general 
warrant or under no warrant at all, many searches would 
be made because of personal hatred, and the peace of the 
home would never be assured. 

There must be sufficient evidence, given under oath, 
amd a special warrant must be issued, before a searching 
or seizure may take place. % 

Article V. — No person shall be held to answer for a 
capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment 
or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the 
land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service 
in time of war and public danger; nor shall any person be 
subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life 
or limh; nor shall be compelled in any crim-inal case to be a 
witness against himself, nor to be deprived of life, liberty, or 
property, without due process of law; nor shall private prop- 
erty be taken for public use, without just compensation. 

The grand jury does not try a case, but decides whether 
the evidence against the accused person is suflScient to 
warrant his being held for trial. If the decision is against 
the prisoner, he is said to be indicted. 

In the Army and Navy a regular trial would cause too 
much delay ; so trials are by court-martial. 

There are three classes of courts martial, general, gar- 
rison, and regimental. Capital offenses are tried by the 
greneral court-martial. The officers comprising this court 



CIVTL GOVERNMENT. 

are appointed by the President or by a g"eneral. They act 
as both judge and ju^. In determining upon a sentence 
of death a two-thirds vote is necessary ; in other cases a 
majority vote is required for conviction. 

If a person is regularly tried and acquitted for an 
offense he cannot be tried again on the same charge. The 
person accused of crime does not have to testify against 
himself. 

*'L<ife, liberty, or property" are not to be taken away 
except by law. The right of eminent domain includes the 
obligation of payment for property taken. 

Article VI. — In all crhninal prosecutions, the accused 
shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an itn- 
partial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall 
have been committed, ivhich district shall have been previous- 
ly ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and 
cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses 
againfthim; to have compulsory process for obtaining wit- 
nesses m his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for 
his defense. 

This clause is not meant as a shield to the guilty, but 
as a safeguard against the conviction of accused persons 
who are innocent. 

The accused may demand a "speedy" trial ; if he is 
innocent the cloud hanging over and about him should be 
dispelled as soon as possible. The trial is "public," that 
is, open to the public and to publication. The jury should 
be made up of men who are "impartial," that is, men who 
have not formed an opinion as to the guilt or innocence of 
the accused, and who are not prejudiced. 

The trial must take place in "the State and district 
wherein the crime shall have been committed," because 
this is an advantage to the defendant. 



CIVIL OOVERXMENT 

Witnesses are summoned by subpoena, whether they 
wish to testify or not, 

If the accused cannot hire a lawyer to defend him, one 
is furnished him and paid out of the public funds. 

Article VII, — In suits at common law, where the value 
in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial 
hy jury shall he preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall 
be otherwise re-exam,ined in any court of the United States 
than according to the rules of common law. 

"The phrase 'common law' is used in contra distinction 
from equity, admiralty, and maritime jurisprudence." 

''Among the 'rules of common law' are these: 1. All 
suits are tried before a judge and jury, the jury determin- 
ing the facts in the case and the judge applying the law. 
2. The facts tried by a jury can be re-examined only by 
means of a new trial before the same court or one of the 
same jurisdiction." 

The purpose of this provision is to preserve the jury 
trial as a real defense against governmental oppression. 
In the Supreme Court there is no jury; the trials are by 
the court. If questions of fact could be reviewed or re- 
examined by such a court on appeal the protection now 
given by a jury would be nullified." {McCleaty.') 

Article VIII.— Excessive bail shall not be required, nor 
excessive fines imposed, 7ior cruel and unusual punishments 
inflicted. 

What bail or what fines would be excessive would have 
to be determined by the judgment of a court. Cruel and 
unusual punishments are out of place in«a truly just gov- 
ernment. For instance, if the death penalty, instead of 
being inflicted in as nearly a painless- manner as possible, 
were accompanied by tortures intended to prolong the suf- 
fering of the victim, justice would not be supported but 
distorted by the process. 



CIVIIi GOVERNMEiyT 

Article IX, — The enumeration in the Constitution of 
certain rights^ shall not be construed to deny or disparage 
others retained by the people. 

A great many rights are mentioned in the Constitution 
and Amendments, but there must be many others, which, 
according to the dictates of common sense would be rec- 
ognized as rights. For the guaranteeing of such rights it 
would seem that this amendment is hardly necessary. 
Then, too, the statement is obscure. As the "certain 
rights" are not specified the expression is practically with- 
out meaning. 

Indeed the stand has been taken that a bill of rights is 
unnecessary in a Constitutional form of government. 

Hamilton, in the Federalist said, "Bills of rights are 
in their origin, stipulations betweens kings and their sub- 
jects, abridgments of prerogative in favor of privilege, 
reservations of rights not surrendered to the prince. They 
have no application to constitutions professedly founded 
upon the power of the • people, and executed by their im- 
mediate representatives and servants. Here, in strictness, 
the people surrender nothing; and as they retain every- 
thing, they have no need of particular reservations. The 
truth is, that the Constitution is itself, in every rational 
sense, and to every useful purpose, a Bill of Rights." 

Article X. — The powers not delegated to the United 
States by the Constitution^ nor prohibited by it to the States, 
are reserved to the States respectively , or to the people. 

Certain powers are enumerated in the Constitution as 
belonging to the national government and certain powers 

are enumerated as belonging to the state governments; 
other powers, not mentioned belong to the state govern- 
ments and not to the national government. 



CIVIL, GOVERNMENT 

THK FIRST TKN AMENDMENTS COMPARED WITH ENGI<AND 'S 

BII^I, OF RIGHTS. 

The foreg-oing- ten amendments were all ratified to- 
gether in December, 1791. It is interesting to notice how 
they compare in thought to EJngland's Bill of Rights. 

In 1689 the Knglish Parliament drew up the Bill of 
Rig-hts. The first part of it shows forth the usurpations 
and wrongs committed by James II., and declares he is no 
longer entitled to the throne. It enumerates the rights 
that are to be conceded by the joint sovereigns "William of 
Orange and Mary, his wife. 

The Bill of Rights declares: 

"That it is the right of the subjects to petition the 
King-, and all commitments and prosecutioite for such 
petitioning are illegal. ( Compare with the First Amend- 
ment. ) 

**That the subjects, which are Protestants, may have 
arms for their defense suitable to their conditions, and as 
allowed by law." ( Compare with the Second Amendment. ) 

<'That the freedom of speech, and debates or proceed- 
ings in Parliament ought not to be impeached or ques- 
tioned in any court or place outside of Parliament." (Com- 
pare with Article I, Section VI, Clause I of the Constitu- 
tion. ) 

*'That excessive bail ought not to be required, nor ex- 
cessive fines imposed; nor cruel and unusual punishments 
inflicted." ( Compare with Eighth Amendment. ) 

"That levying money for or to the use of the crown 

without grant of Parliament, is 

illegal." (Compare with Article I, Section VII, Clause I 
of the Constitution. ) 

Article XI.— The judicial power of the United States 
shall not be construed to extend to afiy suit in law or equity y 



CIVIL. GOVEBIS^MENT 

commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by 
citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any 
foreign state. 

The l^leventh Amendment was ratified in January? 
1798. 

Citizens are forbidden to bring suit against a State, 
because a State possesses a certain degree of sovereignty 
which makes it superior to and independent of the claims 
of individuals. 

An individual's claim against a State may be brought 
to the notice of the L<egislature thereof, but no higher 
authority can be appealed to. 

The Twelfth Amendment was ratified in September, 
1804. It deals with the method of electing the President 
and Vice-President. 

The student will recall that we substituted it for Clause 
3 of Section I. of Article II. of the Constitution and dis- 
cussed it fully in ^lat connection. 

Article XIII. Section /. — Neither slavery nor involun- 
tary servitude, except as a punishment for a crim,e, whereof 
the person shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within 
the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 

Section 2. — Congress shall have power to enforce this 
article by appropriate legislation. 

The Thirteenth Amendment was ratified in December, 
1865. 

The Emancipation Proclamation had already bestowed 
freedom upon the slaves, Jan. 1st, 1863. 

Article XIV. Section i, — All persons horn or natural- 
ized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction 
thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State 
wherein they reside. No State shall 'make or enforce any 
law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities ofcit- 

8 



civil. GOVERXMEXT 

izens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any 
person of life ^ liberty^ or property^ without due process of 
lawy nor de?iy to any person within its jurisdiction the equal 
protection of the laws. 

The Fourteenth Amendment was ratified in July, 1868. 
The first part clearly defines "citizenship." All persons 
born in the United States would include the slaves, as they 
had already been freed. This whole section was doubtless 
intended as a protection to the negro population, though it 
is worded so as to apply to others. 

Section 2, — Representatives shall he appointed among the 
several States according to their respective numbers^ count- 
ing the whole number of persons in each State excluding 
Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election 
for the choice of electors for President and Vice-Preside7it of 
the United States, representatives in Congress, the executive 
or judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legisla- 
ture thereof is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such' 
State, being twenty-one years of age and citizens of the 
United States, or in any way abridged except for participa- 
tion in rebellion or other crime, the basis of representation 
therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number 
of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male 
citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. 

This section means that each State is entitled to Rep- 
sentatives in Congress in proportion to her population. 
But if a State deprives qualified voters of their right to 
vote, her number of Representatives will be reduced in the 
proportion that the number of those voters bears to the 
whole number of qualified voters in the State. 

It would seem from this section that the Southern 
States have a right to take away from the colored popula- 
tion the right to vote, providing they send fewer Repre- 

9 



CIVIL. GOVEB]SrMENT 

sentatives to Congress. But the Fifteenth Amendment 
expressly forbids discrimination on account of color. 

Section j. — IVo person shall be a senator or representative 
in Congress^ or elector of the President or Vice-President^ or^ 
hold any office^ civil or military^ under the United States^ or 
under any State, who, having previously taken an oath as a 
member of Congress^ or as an officer of the United States, or 
as a member of any State Legislature, or as an executive or 
judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the 
United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion 
against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies 
thereof But Congress m,ay, by a vote of two thirds of each 
house, remove such disability. 

The legislative, executive, and judicial officers of the 
United States, and of the several States, are required to 
take an oath to support the Constitution of the United 
States. Any such officials who engaged in rebellion, 
broke that oath and were, therefore, by this section dis- 
qualified from holding a National or State office again un- 
less this disability was removed by act of Congress. 

All, or nearly all, of those affected by this clause, are 
now dead or their disabilities have been removed by two- 
thirds vote of Congress. 

Section 4. — The validity of the public debt of the United 
States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for pay- 
m^ent of pension and bounties for services in suppressing in- 
surrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither 
the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt 
or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion 
against the United States^ or any claim for the loss or 
emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations ^ 
and claims shall be held illegal and void, 

10 



CIVEL GOVERyMENT 

Section 5. — Congress shall have power to enforce^ by 
appropriate legislation^ the provisions of this article. 

Any debt incurred in defense of the Union was to be 
paid; any debt incurred in support of the Rebellion was 
not to be paid. 

Article XV. Section!. — The rights of citizens of the 
United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the 
United States^ or by any State^ on account of race, color, or 
previous condition of servitude. 

Section 2. — Congress shall have power to enforce this 
article by appropriate legislation. 

The Fifteenth Amendment was ratified in march 1870. 

This Amendment means that citizens who are other- 
wise qualified to vote, shall not be deprived of that right 
because of race, color or previous condition of servitude. 

To be sure they may, and have been disqualified, for 
other reasons, such as extreme ignorance or poverty. 

GOVERNMENT OF THE TERRITORIES. 

There are now three regularly organized territories 
within the borders of the United States, namely, Arizona, 
New Mexico and Oklahoma. The Indian Territory has 
not a complete territorial government. 

The Governor, Secretary, Chief Judge and Associate 
Judges, Attorney and Marshal of a Territory are appointed 
by the President for a term of four years. The Governor's 
salary is $3,000 per year. 

There is a I^egislative Assembly made up of a Council 
and a House of Representatives. The members of the 
Council are elected for two years, and the members of the 
House of Representatives for one year, by the people. 

There is a Supreme Court, District Courts, Probate 
Courts and Police Courts. 

11 



* 



CIVIIi GOVERNMENT 

Each of the three Territories sends one Representative |j 

to Congress. ^^ 

THE INDIAN TERRITORY. > 

The Indian country has no g-overnor and no legislature. 
Under the direction of Congress and United States laws, 
the President, through agents, cares for the Indians and | 

thus comprises the executive department of the Territory. 
There are special courts establishad under the author- 
ity of the United States government. 

AI^ASKA. 

Alaska has no Legislature, nor is it represented in 
Congress. The government comprises a Governor, a 
Court, District Attorneys, Marshals and Commissioners. 
Special laws have been enacted by Congress for the gov- 
ernment of Alaska. 

Alaska was purchased by the United States from Rus- 
sia in 1867, for $7,200,000. 

Its area is 577,390 square miles, or more than twice the 
area of Texas. 



CIVIL GOVERNMENT 
OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

(SIXTH PAPER.) 

1. Why are the first ten amendments called the Bill 
of Rights? 

2. What rights are enumerated in the first four 
amendments? 

3. How are offenses tried in the Army and Navy? 

4. What suits at common law may be tried by a jury? 

5. What does the jury determine? What the judge? 

6. What courts are not governed by common law? 

7. What is said concerning excessive bail? 

8. What did Alexander Hamilton say in regard to a 
Bill of Rights? 

9. When did the Knglish Parliament drd^ up a Bill 
of Rights? What does it show forth and enumerate? 

10. Can a citizen bring suit against a state? 

11. What does the XHI. Amendment set forth? When 
were the slaves freed? 

12. What Article and Section define citizenship? Who 
are citizens of the United States? 

13. What debts incurred by the Civil War were to be 
paid? What not to be paid? 

14. What Amendment gave the negro the right of 
suffrage? 

15. May a State disqualify a citizen to vote? 

16. How are the organized territories within the United 
States governed? 



13 



DIDACTICS. 

(SIXTH PAPER.) 
In this, the last paper, it shall be our purpose to con- 
sider first some things that have to do with the health as 
well as the progress of the children in school and then to 
discuss briefly some of the so-called modern things in 
our Educational system. 

Ventilation. — With a room filled with foul air we are 
sure to find drowsy, indifferent children. Such air is filled 
with germs which of necessity pass into the children's 
systems. The children have headaches and cannot pos- 
sibly do good work. This is the condition to-d^ in many 
school rooms all over our country. Teachers need to be on 
a sharp look out for it, inasmuch as being constantly in the 
com they are not likely to become aware of its presence. 
Superintendents and principals find it a constant source 
for criticism. One would scarcely believe that in this day 
and age buildings would be built without giving due 
attention to ventilation, yet such is the case. I visited a 
building to-day, not mare than six years old, heated with a 
furnace, but not any provision made for fresh air, except 
the windows. I entered a room in which were three east 
windows open. The wind was blowing in directly on 
the necks and backs of the children. I stood for a moment 
or two to see if the windows would not be closed, but find- 
ing that they were permanently open, I closed them. In 
case one is teaching in such a building, the best method of 
ventilating is to place a three or four inch board under the 
window, making it tight below, but admitting the air 
between the upper and lower sashes. This permits the fresh 
air to come in and at the same time does not let it blow 



DIDACTICS. 

directly on the children. In case this is not sufficient, it is 
well to open the windows during- a breathing- or physical 
culture exercise. Boards of Education should have the 
importance of school room ventilation continually im- 
pressed upon them, for in no building is pure air more 
essential than in a school building, where so many child- 
ren are housed together^for hours at a time. It becomes, 
then, the duty of the teacher who ought to know best 
about this fact; to make the importance of this question 
known. 

Breathing. — Few people lake use of more than half 
of their lung space in breathir ^. The result is that not 
being used, the lungs becomes useless and when disease 
comes it is not easy to combat it. The health of a child 
not only demands that it have pure air, but that it use 
this air in breathing. Hence it comes that a deep breath- 
ing exercise in which the child is taught to expel all the 
air from its lungs and to fill them with pure air should be 
placed on the school program at frequent intervals. The 
child should be taught to use as much of its lung space as 
possible in its regular breathing. This being done, a 
longer lived and healthier race will result. 

Cleanliness. — The health of the child and its play- 
mates demands that it be cleanly in person and wearing 
apparel. This is a problem that is difficult to solve,lbut it 
must be solved. Water is free and soap and towels are 
cheap. In some cases a bath may be necessary at the 
school room or some convenient place. In most cases 
children can be taught to bathe themselves at home. 

Slates. — It is scarcely necessary to speak of the use of 
slates. They have passed out of all good schools and can 
only be found in rural districts. As a means of spreading 
gerjn^ they were very effective. Moreover, slates are 

2 



DIDACTICS. 

noisy, nerve wrecking devices. Common newspaper 
paper is now taking- the place of them in most schools. 
Since the paper, if bought in large quantities, is very 
cheap, it is customary for Boards of l^ducation to buy it 
and furnish it the same as crayon. 

Wraps. — Another thing to be watched by teachers is 
the use of wraps. Many children are exceedingly careless 
about going out in all sorts of weather without hat, cap or 
cloak. Others play hard, become heated, come into the 
school room and without removing their wraps sit down 
before an open window. In either case there is much dan- 
ger of taking cold. Children should be taught to be care- 
ful about such things and the teacher should watch over 
them as a mother watches over her children. In this re- 
spect the teacher is truly in "loco parentis" and should not 
fail in her duty. Again it often happens that children 
reach school with wet feet or wet garments, hav- 
ing been caught in a rain. In such cases the health of the 
child should receive the first consideration and if it is im- 
possible for the clothes to be dried at school, the child 
should be sent home where it can receive the necessary 
attention. 

Preparations for Sickness.— "In time of peace 
prepare for war" is an old saying which may well be ap- 
plied to school work and be changed so as to read **in time 
of health prepare for sickness." In other words, it is well 
for the teacher to have on hand some simple remedies 
which can be used in cases of sudden illness. This is 
especially important in country schools where the children 
are not near their homes and medical skill not at hand. 
Frostbites, sprains, bruises, bee stings and the like can be 
treated by the teacher and the children relieved of much 

3 



DIDACTICS. 

pain. In case of illness or serious accident the child's 
parents should be sent for, or the child taken home with- 
out delay. 

SOME MODERN THINGS IN EDUCATION. 

Within the memory of those now teaching the school 
course consisted of reading, writing and arithmetic, spell- 
ing being included under the head of reading. Geography 
was next added, being taught first by the old singing 
method. Then came history, physiology, drawing, music, 
manual-training, domestic science, nature study, etc. 

Doesn't this look a little like making the school course 
top heavy asks the conservative citizen, while the poor 
over-worked teacher groans and sighs, but dares not say a 
word for fear of being called not up-to-date. In answer to 
the above charge I would like to say that the course is not 
made top heavy but only richer, the work of the teacher is 
not made harder, but broader and deeper culture is re- 
quired of those seeking admission to the teaching profes- 
sion. I<et us look into these new things for a few mo- 
ments and see what they are. 

Nature Study.— The purpose of this subject is not, 
as many suppose, to study nature as a separate and dis- 
tinct topic in the course of. study, but rather to lead the 
boys and girls incidentally to observe and understand 
some of the wonders and beauties of nature about them. 
It may be in connection with reading or geography, or it 
may be in a general exercise. Suppose the reading lesson 
for the day is the poem, ^'September," by Helen Hunt 
Jackson. What an opportunity is given to the teacher to 
arouse interest in nature. The children will be eager to 
learn and tell about the "golden rod," "the milk weed," 
"the asters." Indeed, without coming to know these, this 
beautiful poem loses much of what makes it dear to all of 



DIDACTICS. 

us. Ag-ain the boy or girl will be delighted to learn how 
asters by the brookside make asters in the brook. The 
child can thus be taught to observe these things in nature 
and its knowledge of nature be increased day by day. For 
scarcely a reading lesson can be found which does not in- 
volve some new study of nature. 

As a basis for language work I know of nothing better 
than the study of nature, for here the child sees things 
for itself and can learn to express them in its own words. 
Hence it comes that nature study is not a new study but an 
enriching of the old. 

DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 

It is a well known fact that young women coming from 
Sweden to America rarely leave the Atlantic coast because 
of the demand there for their services. This is due to the 
fact that they are trained in their native schools in do- 
mestic work. Sewing, cooking and laundry work form a 
part of the public education of every girl. There is a 
false notion abroad in this country that the boys and girls 
should receive industrial training. This idea is good so 
far as it may apply to strictly mental subjects, but it is 
entirely wrong when applied to manual training. It is far 
better for our girls to learn to sew and cook than to have 
them take bench work in manual training. No more pro- 
fitable time is spent in our schools than that given to these 
subjects by the girls, for through them they not only learn 
something practical, but they acquire habits of accuracy, 
order, and care for detail, all of which have a direct bear- 
ing on success in life. Moreover, I believe that if a pupil 
learns to do one thing well it will cause that pupil to do 
other things well. Even in a country school a teacher 
might set aside a little time for this work for her girls. 
This department has a wonderful effect in improving the 

5 



DIDACTICS. 

homes and in making the children take pride in the home 
work. 

MUSIC. 

Music is sometimes called a fad but I place it next in 
importance to Domestic Science, because I feel that there 
is something more at the base of our educational system 
than a pure utilitarian idea. Our schools should try to 
make home life more and more attractive. To do this no 
one subject will go further than music, for what accomp- 
lishment affords more pleasure in the home than power to 
make music. But music has other uses than this. Vocal 
music is a very excellent means of teaching boys and girls 
to breathe correctly, to carry their bodies erect and to care 
for their throats and voices. Moreover, it furnishes a way 
to arouse the pupils, drive away weariness, and bring 
about renewed interest in their work. In fact it is a rest 
period, just as is a recess. Teachers should bear this in 
mind in preparing their programs, should put music where 
it will best serve this purpose. 

MANUAi, Training. 

The idea of teaching a boy to use his hands at first 
seemed wild to the teaching profession, and many citizens 
as well, but this is no longer true. Teachers everywhere 
are beginning to see the benefits of training the mind and 
hands to work together. At first it was claimed by those 
opposed to manual training that it would take too much 
time from the other more important studies, but recent 
tests have proved conclusively that pupils who spent part 
of their time in manual training are able to accomplish 
more in their other studies. Manual training teaches 
accuracy, care for little things, and concentration. It 
teaches accuracy because a piece of work cannot be ac- 
cepted in manual training until every part of it is made to 

6 



DIDACTICS. 

fit pf opefiy into the other attached parts. The pupil wh o 
is riot accurate will have to do his work over and over 
again with the result that he learns not only to be accurate 
but also to give attention to the minutest details. It 
teaches concentration because it is impossible for one to 
make a piece of apparatus, no matter how simple, without 
keeping one's mind constantly on the work. Concentra- 
tion learned in this way becoflies very useful when ap- 
plied in the intellectual studies. Teachers will do well to 
bear this in mind and not fail to make use of manual 
training to bring about desired results in other studies. 

DRAWING. 

Drawing is another of the special studies meriting 
consideration. The more ways a person can represent his 
ideas the better. If he can tell them well, good; so also if he 
can express them in writing. Add to this the power to ex- 
press them in drawings and one has a great gain over the 
man who cannot do this. This is very important to the 
teacher who is called upon almost daily to illustrate some- 
thing by means of a drawing on the black board. It is 
valuable to men and women in every walk of life and it 
can be learned by the pupils without extra effort. A little 
attention each day, beginning in the primary grade, will 
work wonders by the time the high school is reached. If 
this is so, why not teach it? Why have a special teacher? 
Ought not every teacher be able to give the necessary in- 
struction for her grade? 

SCHOOIy GARDENS. 

state Superintendent Bayliss says that school gardens 
have come to stay. What does he mean? Does he mean 
that country boys and girls need to learn how to make 
gardens? He means undoubtedly that the schools must do 
more along the line of making their pupils self-supporting. 

7 



MDACTICS. 

The school garden is only one of the industrial phased bi 
school work which is now taking root in our schools. 
While it is true that some know and understand about 
these things, it is more nearly correct when we say that 
most do not. Children need to learn the nature of the soils 
and seeds developed into plants. By interesting children 
in these things and by basing a part of their credit on 
what they do at home, the work in school gardening can 
be made helpful at home as well as to the child. 

SOME ESSENTIAI, ATTRIBUTES OF A TEACHER. 

In concluding this paper it seems best to include a dis- 
cussion of some of the qualities that go to make up a good 
teacher. The order in which they appear is not intended 
to show their relative importance. 

ScholarsMp. — First of all a teacher needs to know 
the subjects she is going to teach. Know it so well that 
her time of preparation need not be spent in learning the 
subject, but rather in considering how best to present it to 
this particular class. 

A scholarship that is broad, much broader than the 
text book in the hands of the pupils. Pope says: "A little 
learning is a dangerous thing." To no class of people 
is a little learning so dangerous as to the teaching profes- 
sion. So let every teacher work unceasingly to attain this 
broad scholarship. 

Unblemished Character.— A much easier thing to 
talk about than to possess is an unblemished character. 
Teachers influence more by what they are than by their 
words, and since, as we have said before, the moral side of 
our pupils is to receive its just quota of attention, then it 
is of all importance that the teacher be a model worthy of 
imitation, for pupils will and they always will imitate. 
The teacher should live in accordance with her own doc- 

8 



DIDACTICS. 

trines, so that the word hypocrite can not be applied to her. 
This is no easy task, yet it must be accomplished by the 
best teacher. 

Patience. — This quality is very essential to success 
in the school room. Children are slow, they do many 
things to annoy their teachers; they must be told the same 
thing- over and over again. The teacher who does not 
realize this is sure to come to grief. ** Wir rnuessen Ge 
duld hahen''' says the German proverb, and surely it fits the 
case of the school teacher. 

Ability to See Two Sides.— Many men and women 
of liberal education are unable to see two sides to any 
question. Teachers who are of this type are apt to be ar- 
bitrary and not to get along with their pupils. A teacher 
needs to look at all questions from the child's point of 
view as well as from her own. Too much teaching goes 
over the heads of the learners. Teachers must see the 
difficulties from the learners side in order to overcome 
them. The level of the child must be sought and found, if 
the teacher expects to help it. The teacher should there- 
fore look at all questions from as many sides as possible. 
It often happens that teachers make mistakes, make wrong 
decisions. If so, admit them frankly and honestly and the 
respect of the pupils will remain with the teacher. Stick 
to the wrong position and pay for it by loss of respect of 
pupils and opportunity for usefulness. 

Unselfisliness. — If a teacher is not careful she comes 
after long years of service to feel that the school is made 
for the purpose of giving employment to teachers, and 
hence everything must be done in accordance with the 
whim of the teacher. No greater mistake can be made. 
The schools are first of all for the children and the good of 
the children stands above every other consideration. 



DIDACTICS. 

Hence it becomes the duty of a teacher to show the utmost 
unselfishness in the discharge of her office. 

Naturalness. — Another thing teachers need to avoid 
is being unnatural and artificial. It is possible for a ma- 
ture person to deceive another mature person in this re- 
spect, but it is not possible to deceive the boys and girls of 
our schools. If a teacher affects what she is not, they 
know it, if she says one thing and does another, they know 
it. Hence it is best for a teacher to be her own true self 
before her pupils. 

Receptiveness. — Old people do not like to change 
their ways. I once knew a worthy man who lived most of 
his life before the invention of railroads. When they 
came he looked upon them with distrust and still continued 
to use the old fashioned coach in making his journeys. 
Though he lived thirty years after every body else was 
traveling by steam, yet he refused to yield. No one was 
the loser save him. In the commercial world of today the 
men who are succeeding are those who are taking hold of 
every invention and improved method that will make their 
work more efficient. In the educational world new plans 
of organization, new methods of instructing and new 
books are being brought out constantly and the teacher 
who is going to succeed is the one who approaches these 
new devices with a receptive mind and makes it her busi- 
ness to keep up with the times. The teaching profession 
is said to be the most conservative profession in the world 
and as a result of this conservatism younger teachers are 
pushing the older ones aside and taking their places. 
Teachers should bear this fact in mind and keep up with 
the best educational thought. 

Self Sacrifice. — Teachers are underpaid, their po- 
sitions are not permanent and they cannot expect to ac- 

10 



DIDACTICS. 

cumulate wealth and occupy the same position in the com- 
munity as men and women in other walks of life. They 
must come to their work then, with a willingness to foreg-o 
these things — in a word they must lead a life of self-sac- 
rifice. Those who are unwilling to make this sacrifice 
had better keep out of the teaching profession. 

Self Control. — In no other vocation is self control 
more essential than in the teaching profession. A thous- 
and and one things occur to vex and annoy the teacher. 
But no matter how many such things arise, no matter how 
troublesome her pupils become she must not lose her tem- 
per. If she does, her life becomes a torture, for the pupils 
will take every opportunity to make her angry, and after 
it is all over they call her a **scold" and tell at Tiome at 
night what a time they have with her. By this I do not 
mean that a teacher should never become indignant. She 
should, when occasion arises, show a righteous indigna- 
tion, but she should be perfect master of herself all the 
time. If she is to control others she must control herself. 

Willingness to Work.— The duties of a teacher in- 
volve much drudgery and wearying routine work. To 
achieve success this work must be carried out with the 
greatest fidelity. Hard work, well directed, will overcome 
many obstacles in the path of the teacher. Why should a 
teacher complain of long hours? Does not the grocer or 
other business man put in long hours? Work, hard work, 
is the price of success. 

Tact. — This is a quality that goes far toward success 
in almost every walk of life. It is no less important to 
the teacher than to others. It is difficult to tell just what 
it is, but it appears to be that about a person that makes 
him know just what to do or say and just when to do or 
say it. No two cases need to be treated alike. No two 
parents, no two pupils should be dealt with in the same 
manner. Tact is that which tells the teacher how to treat 
each case and make it possible to avoid much friction and 
unpleasantness. 

11 



DIDACTICS. 

SIXTH PAPER. 

OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

1» What is a fad? 

2. Has Nature Study a place in our schools? 

3. Discuss briefly what the course in nature study 
aims to accomplish. 

4. Discuss and compare the importance of Drawing 
and Music in the school course. 

5. What is manual training? 

6. What phases of domestic science should be in- 
cluded in our course of study? 

7. Is School Gardening a fad? Give reasons for your 
answer. 

8. Which of these special studies do you believe to be 
of most value? 

9. Why should a teacher have broad scholarship? 

10. Of what use is it to a teacher to read current edu- 
cational literature? 

11. What is meant by a teacher being in a receptive 
mood? 

12. Discuss "Seeing Both Sides of a Question." 

13. Es patience a special qualification of a teacher? 
Why? 

14. Why is it necessary for a teacher to have self con- 
trol? 

15. Discuss tact as a quality belonging to a teacher. 

16. Why should a teacher have an irreproachable char- 
acter? 



12 



ALGEBRA. 

(SIXTH PAPBR. ) 

**Orcmt mind* are energized by personal failitre; weak 
minds depressed.*' 

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS. 

In the equations previously considered, we have treated 
oalj of those involving the first degree of one or more un- 
known quantities. We proceed now to the discussion of 
equations containing one or more unknown quantities not 
Mcceeding the second degree. 

A qaadratic equation is one in which the greatest 
exponent of the unknown quantity is 2. It ma^ involve 
the first power of the unknown quantity, in some of its 
terms, and terms may be included in it which do not in- 
volve the unknown quantity. For example, a^ssa and a^-f- 
7at—i2 are both quadratic equations. 

la the first equation above the first power, x of the un- 
known quantity is wanting. Such equations are called 
Inoomplete* or pure quadratic equations. Equations 
like the second, in which the first power of x is present, are 
eaUed affected or complete quadratic equations. 

PURB QUADRATICS. 

As in simple equations, the first step in solving equa- 
lloiisof the second degree, is to clear the equation of frac> 
lions, if necessary, and transpose the terms so that the 
unknown quantities shall be in one member of the equa- 
tion and known quantities in the other. Then, by com- 
bining similar terms, etc., reduce to the form «*=«, and 
extract the square root of both members. The sign of the 
root may be positive or negative. That is, pure quadratic 
equations hav« two roots, which are the same numerleaUy, 



ALGEBRA. 

but they hare opposite signs. For example, \/^=s±x, 
since the square of H-a; and of — x is equally x^. In the same 

manner, i/'^4= ji 2, since the square of-f 2 and of 2 is 

equally 4. 

3a;2 /J.2 

1. Find the value of x in -x +S=-7--f 25. 

3/j;2 /J.2 

S01.UT10N. — Given -^-\-5=-r--{-2S. 

Clearing- of fractions, 6a;2+20=a;2-fl00. 

Transposing, etc., Sa;2=80. 
Removing coefficient of x^, x2=l6. 

Extracting square root. a;= .t 4. Atjs. 

Find the value of x in the following: 

2. 4x2+7=203. 

3. 7x2 4-9=5x2-1-137. 

4. 16x2—13=13x2—1. 

5. x2-f-72=3x2— 266. 

7x2 

6. -^+27=2x2+11. 

^ 5x2+4 3x2—12 



V .5 

X X 84 
^- 7=3~¥* 
9. X 12 14x 72 

3~"x~ 7 ~x' 

10. 16x2—22=5x2+77. 

11. (X— 1)2=26 -2x. 

, ^ 5x2+151 

12. X2— 7= y . 

13. x(3x+7)=7x+3. 

3 3 _ 3_ 

^^' x + l""x— 1~"~40* 

x2 

15. x2+18=Y+30;^. 

16. 2i/x2+9=i/5x2— 85. 



Ans. 


^=±7. 


Ans. 


^=±8. 


Ans. 


^==±2. 


Ans. 


^=±13. 


Ans. 


;ir=±8. 


Ans. 


x—±A. 


Ans. 


;r=±21. 


Ans. 


x=±6. 


Ans. 


x=±3. 


Ans. 


x=±5. 


Ans. 


X— ± 10. 


Ans. 


x^±\. 


Ans. ;r=9. 


Ans. 


x—±h. 


Ans. 


^=±11. 


Ans. 


x=±5. 



ALGEBRA. 



X — 2 x-\-2 



5x2—7 3x2— 15 x^—7 7a;g— 19 
19. —2— 4""~~~3~= 4y2 • ^^^- ^=±7. 

Affected or Complete Equations.— Those which 

contain both the first and second powers of the unknown 

quantity, and a known term, must be changed into a simple 

form by cancellation of the first powers; or, if this cannot 

be done, the operation of "completing- the square" must be 

resorted to. 

An illustrative example of this class is given, and the 
rule for performing it follows: 

x^—16x=Z6. (1) 

the^liwi x2-16a:+(64)=36+64=100 (2) (Adding the 
square of %, of 16 ). ^ 

Extracting 3j_8— + 10 I'W 

the Sq. Root, i*^— »— x^". (d) 

Reducing, a;=8-|- 10=18. (4) 

Or, a;=8— 10= —2, 

In this example, equation is affected, and the value of 
% cannot be found until rendered an equation in which both 
members are perfect squares. This is effected by one of 
two methods, usually called the Hindoo and Arabic modes. 
We have used the latter method by squaring one-half the 
coefficient of x and adding it to both members. 

Rule.— ( 1 ) Reduce the equation to its simplest form. 

(2) To both members add the square of one-half the 
coefficient of the second term — the first power of the un- 
known quantity. 

(3) Extract the square root of the new equation, and 
reduce the result. 

Find the value of x in the following: 

1. a;3~8a;=— 15. Ans. a;=S or 3. 

2. x24-12x=64. Ans. a;=4or— 16. 

3. 5x2-1- 20x=22S. . Ans. x~S or —9. 



ALGEBRA. 

4. 7x2 — 42a:=sO. Ans. Xes:6 or 0. 

5. ~ — 2x=sO. An*. »=s=8 or 0. 

An». xsBt? or — ji. 

7. ap^— 3x=^-fl. Ana. »=4 or— X- 

Ana. «=b6 or — <3}. 
Ana. 0s=5 or — |f^. 

ANOTHER M^HOD. 

1. Given a;«-f 4x=12, to find x, 
MoD«i, Operation: aj»+4x=12. 




-2±4. 
x=2 or — 6. Aim* 
2. Given c*— 12ate=45. 
OP9&ATIOK: »■ — ^12x=45. 



» =.6d=i/4S-f3d. 

x=:l5 or — 3. Ans. 
In these operationa we have prefixed one-half the co- 
efficient of Xy with the sign changed to plus or minus (±\, 
the square root of the integral term plus the square of 
half the coefficient of x. This is simply a shorter waj of 
making the same combinations of the same terms as when 
we complete the squares bj the preceding method. Solve 
all the foregoing equations in the same waj^alao aolv<e the 
following: 

3. 9^ — 6x=55. Ana. ie=ll or — ^ 

4. 3scH-24«s27. Ana. x=sl or —9, 

s. ?^^ ^ ^„-.. 

2x« 
6. —c 4jBw240. Ana. x=a30 or — fiO. 



ALGEBRA. 

7. a;2_3a._7o. Ans. a;=10 or — 7. 

8. 3x^—15x=72. Ans. a;=8 or —3. 

9. x^—ax=6aK Ans. jc=3a or -—2a. 
10. 9x2— 116=7a;. ^^^^^ x=4 or — 3|. 

THE HINDOO METHOD. 

This method of reducing- an affected quadratic equation 
may be illustrated as follows: 

1. Given 3aj24-5x=22, to find x. 

By the problem, 3a;2-[-5x=22. 

Multiplying by 4 times the coefficient of x^, Z6x^-\-60xsas 

264. 

Adding the square of 5 (the coefficient of x), 36x*-|-60x 

+25=289. 

% 
Extracting the square root of both members, 6aj+S=± 

17. 

Transposing, 6x= — 5 ±17. 

Hence, x=2 or — 3f . Ans. 

Note. — We multiplj all the terms of the equation by the coefficient 
of x^ in order to make the first term a perfect square without removing 
the coefficient. We multiply by 4 to avoid fractions in completing the 
square, when the coefficient of x is an odd number. This process, with the 
addition of the square of the coefficient of x to each member, is the same, 
in effect, as adding- the square of half the coefficient of * to each mem- 
ber, and then clearing- of fractions by multiplying it by the denominator 
4. 

Solve the foUowin^^ ♦ quations by this method. 

2. Given, x^-{-x=3L ito find x. Ans. x=S or — 6. 

3. Given, 2x^ — Tx^iv ^ to find x. Ans. x=4 or — |. 

4. Given, 3>x^-\-2x=33, to find x. Ans. x=3 or — 3f. 

5. Given, x2 — 3x=4, to find x. Ans. x=4 or — 1. 

6. Given, Sx^— 5x=78, to find ;tr. Ans. ;r»=6 or — 4|-. 

7. Given, ;ir2_i7;;^_ _52, to find x. Ans. ;r=13 or — 4. 

8. Given, 7x^—9jt:= —2, to find x. Ans. x=l or — f. 
After some practice it will be found that these three 

m thods are equally applicable to the solution of anyequa- 



ALGEBRA. 

tion in affected quadratics, though each has its advan- 
tages in particular problems. It will be seen that the 
second is the shortest method and that the advantage of the 
third, is in the avoidance of fractions in completing the 
square. The first method, however, should be fully 
mastered, as it the most natural. 

Note.— It should be observed that an equation is in the quadratic 
form if it contains but two powers of the unknown quantity and the 
exponent of one power is just twice that of the other. Hence equations 
not of the second degree, but of the quadratic form, may be solved in 
the same manner as quadratic equations. 

1. Given, x*-\-2a:^=24, to find x. 
Multiplying by 4, Ax^^%x^=96, 
Completing the square, 4x^-{-8x^-{-A =100. 
Extracting square root, 2;ir2_j_2= ± lo. 
Hence, 2^2_8 or— 12: 

And x^=4 or — 6. 
Therefore, x= ± 2 or i/ — 6. 
Solve the following: 

2. X*— 2x^=4. Ans. x= ± 2 or i/^. 

3. x^—x^=3x^-{-621. Ans. x=S or l/^^^^. 

4. 3x*—S00=2x^-\-SxK Ans. ^=±Sor i/— 20l 

5. 6+8=9ji;3.- Ans. x^2 or 1. 

RADICAI, EQUATIONS. 

An equation involving radical expressions may be 
solved by first clearing of radicals. 

1. Solve i/2^ + 5— 1/^^4-2= x/x—1. 

Squaring both sides, 2x-\-S—2\/i^2x-\-5) {x-\-2)-{-x-\-2 
=x—l. 

Transposing and combining, 2x-\-S=.2x/ {2x-\-S){ x-\-2 ) . 
Dividing by 2 and squaring, {x-\-Af=z{2x-\-S){x-\-2), 
Expanding,cc2_|_8a;-|-i6=2ic2+9a;+10. 
Transposing and combining, x^-\-x=6. 
Hence, 4x2f 4x+l=25. 



ALGEBRA. 

Extracting Square Root, 2;ir+l=±5. 

Therefore, x=2 or — 3. Ans. 

Solve in the same manner the following: 

2. i/3x+4+i//x+9=:i/lli+4. Ans. x=7 or ~^. 

3. \/x—\/ x—S=v^x—S. Ans. a;=9 or — \. 

4. v^^ —7 —v^ ic— 16 =:3. Ans, a;=16. 

5. 1/^ 3a; + 1 — 2x/^a; —1=i/ax. Ans. x=lor — 1|. 

PBOBI^BMS. 

1. Find two numbers such that their sum is IS, and 
their product is 56. 

Note.— I(et x= one number and 15—* the other. 
Then, by the conditions of the problem, x[lS — »), or, 
\Sx — x2=S6. 

Transpose, complete the square, and solve. 

Ans. x=8, 15— a;=7. Hence, 8 and 7 are the numbers. 

2. The sum of two numbers is 16, and their product is 
63. What are the numbers? Ans. 7 and 9. 

3. A man bought a number of barrels of apples for 
$60; if he had bought 10 more barrels for the same sum» 
they would have cost $1 less per barrel. Find the number 
of barrels and the price per barrel. 

Note. — I<et x => No. of barrels: then — =price per barrel, 

60 60 
By the conditions of the problem — ri7r= — — 1. Clear 

•B-j~lU X 

of fractions and solve. Ans. 20 barrels, $3 each. 

It will be observed in the solution of this and other problems, that 
while * is shown to have two values, only that value is accepted in the re- 
sult which is reasonable to the conditions. For instance, in the solution 
of the above problem, x is found to have the values 20 and — 30. It Is not 
reasonable to suppose that "30 barrels less than none," were bought. In 
other words, — 30 does not satisfy the condition of the problem, althoug-h 
it may satisfy the conditions of the equation. 

4. Three times the square of a certain number is 
equal to thirteen times the number diminished by 4. Re- 
quired the number. Ans. 4 or ^. 



ALGEBRA. 

5. A man divided $15 equally among a number of per- 
sons; if there had been two more persons each would have 
received $2 less. How many persons were-there? Ans. 3. 

6. Divide the number 40 into two such parts that their 
product is 279. Ans. 9 and 31. 

7. Find two numbers whose sum is 63, and their pro- 
duct 9S0. Ans. 25 and 38. 

8. A rectangular field is enclosed by a fence 480 rods 
in length. If the area of the field is 12800 square rods, 
what are its length and breadth? 

Ans. Length, 160 rods; breadth, 80 rods. 

Note.— Let *= the length of the field, and 240— a? the breadth; then 

.f(310— *')=12800. Solve. 

9. What are the length and breadth of a field whose 
area is 3200 square rods, if the fence enclosing it is 240 rods 
long? Ans. Length, 80 rods; Breadth, 40 rods. 

By selling lamps which cost him $20, for $4.80 each, a 
merchant gained the cost of one lamp. How many lamps 
were there? Ans. 5. 

Note.— Let x= number of lamps; then 4Y6*> the selling price of 

2 

the lamps, less — •, the cost of 1 lamp, equals 20, the cost of all the 
lamps. Make the equation and solve. 

11. The sum of two numbers is 6, and the sum of their 
reciprocals is ^4 • What are the numbers? Ans. 4 and 2 

Note.— Let x=* one number and d—x^ the other. Then, 

i ,J_^i Solve. 
x'^d—x 4 • 

12. The sum of two numbers is 7, and the sum of their 
reciprocals is Vi2« What are the numbers? Ans. 4 and 3. 

13. The sum of the squares of two consecutive num- 
bers exceeds their product by 13. What are the numbers? 

Ans. 3 and 4. 

Note.— Let x== one number; then Ar+1= the other. Make eqiiation 

and solve. 



ALGEBRA. 

14. The square of the sum of two consecutive numbers 
exceeds the sum of their squares by 60. What are the num- 
bers? Ans. S and 6. 

15. The difference of the cubes of two successive odd 
numbers is 98. Required the numbers. Ans. 3 and S. 

Note.— *=oae number, and x+2, or *— 2, = the other. Make the 
equation and solve. 

16. The area of a square may be quadrupled by increas- 
ing its length by IS feet and its breadth by 6 feet. Find 
the side of the square. Ans. 10 feet. 

17. The perimeter of a rectangular field is 72 rods. Its 
area is 323 square rods. Find its dimensions. 

Ans. lyength, 29 rods; breadth, 17 rods. 

18. The denominator of a certain fraction exceeds the 
numerator by 2. If 5 be added to both numerator and de- 
nominator, the fraction will be increased by Vs. What is 
the fraction? Ans. %. 

19. In an orchard of 40 trees, there are three more trees 
in a row than there are rows. How many rows are there 

and how many trees in a row? 

Ans. 5 rows and 8 trees in a row. 

20. Find two numbers, the "product of which is 20, and 
if 2 be added to the less, and 2 be subtracted from the 
greater, the product will be 18. Ans, 4 and 5. 

21. Divide the number 25 into two such parts that their 
product shall be 10 times the greater. Ans. 15 and 10. 

22 The difference of two numbers is 13, and their pro- 
duct is 30. What are the numbers? 

Ans. 2, or— 15, one; 15, or —2, the other. 

23. The difference between two numbers is 12, and their 
product is equal to the cube of the less number. Find the 
numbers. Ans. 16 and 4. 



ALGEBRA. 

24. If to a certain man's age you add its square root and 
seven years the sum will equal 49 years. How old is he? 

Ans. 36 years. 

25. A and B together can do a piece of work in 6 days, 
and it takes B 5 days longer to do it alone than it does A. 
In how many days can each do it alone? 

Ans. A, 10 days; B, IS days. 
NoTR.— Let ;r=» number days it takes A alone, then A?+S=the num- 
ber of days it takes B alone; hence, —4- — -n.=T. Clear of fractions and 

solve. 

SIMUI^TANEOUS QUADRATIC EQUATIONS. 

When the sum of the exponents of the unknown quan- 
tities is the same in every term which contains them, an 
equation is said to be homogeneous. For example, x^+j. 
=5, and x^-\-2xy-\-y^=\2)^ are each homogeneous equations. 

An equation is said to be syininetrieal when the un- 
known quantities are involved to the same degree. To 
illustrate, the equations x^—y^=Zy and x^y-\-xy^=fi^ are 
symmetrical. 

In simultaneous quadratic equations containing 
two unknown quantities, there are three classes of examples 
which may be solved by applying the rules of quadratics. 

CASE I. 

TO SOI,VE SIMUI.TANEOUS EQUATIONS WHEN ONE OF THE 

EQUATIONS IS SIMPI^E AND THE OTHER 

A QUADRATIC EQUATION. 

1. Given x'^-\-y^=:5f and x-\-y=3f to find x and>'. 
Soi<UTiON.— By the problem, x^-{-y^=:5. (1). 

By the problem, x-\-y^=3. (2). 

Transposing x in (2), y=3 — a;. (3). 

In ( 1 ) substitute 3— a; for y,x^-{-9—6x-\-x^=5. (4). 
Transposing and combining, 2x- — 6x= — 4. 

Dividing by 2, x^ — 3x= — 2. 

Completing the square, x^ — Sx+^^^V^* 

10 



ALGEBRA. 

Extijactingf square root of both members, x— 72= ± Vs. 
Hence, x=2 or 1. 

Substituting- value of a; in (3), if a;=2, ^=3—2=1; and 
if x=l, y=3—l=2. 

We have therefore, the pairs of values, x=2 or 1, and 
>'=1 or'2. Either pair of values will satisfy the con- 
ditions of the original equations, but x=2, y=2, will not 
do so, neither will ic=l, jv=l, satisfy the conditions. That 
is, if x=2, y must =1, and if a;=l, y must =2. In every ex- 
ample or problem the corresponding value of y must be 
joined to the value of x. 

Solve the following: 

2. a;2+y=73. • 
x—y—S, Ans. x—'^ or —3; y—Z or— S. 

3. a;2+y=8S. 

x-\-y—\2>, Ans. aj=6 or 7; y—1 or 6. 

4. a;2— j2=65. 

a;— jj'=S. Ans. x—% y=4, 

5. x^+y^=29. 

x—y=3. Ans. x=S or — 2; jj'=2 or— 5. 

6. 3x2— 2y=:19. 

x-\-3y=9. Ans. a;=3, or— 4"/2s; j=2 or 412/25. 

7. 5X2- j)/2=:19. 

Sx— j/=9. Ans. x=2 or 2V2; ^^=1 or 3^2. 

8. x2_3y^i3. 

X— j=3. Ans. x=5 or 4; _y=2 or 1. 

9. 2x2— y=17. 

2x—y=5. Ans. x=:7 or 3; ^==9 or 1. 

X2 1/2 

1^- -3-2 =1- 

X v 

:r+~2. Ans. x=3, or —27; y=2, or 22. 



3^2- 



11 



ALGEBRA, 

CASE 2. 

WHEN THE EQUATIONS ARE BOTH QUADRATIC AND 

HOMOGENEOUS. 

1. Given x^-\-xy=6, sind y^-\-xy=3f to find x and y, 
Soi^uTiON. — By the problem, x^-\-xy=6. (1). 

By the problem, y^-\-xy—3. (2). 

L/ct x=sy. ( 3 ). 

Substituting- sy in (1) s^y^-\-sy^=6^ (4). 

Substituting sy in {2) y +5^=3. ( 5 ). 

6 
Hence, in (4) y=^2T^. (6). 

And in (5) y=Yq:7. (7) 

6 3 

liquating ( 6 ) and 7, ^2:j7y= Yfl * ^ ^ ^' 

Clearing, 6-1-65==3^2_|_3j. (9). 

Transposing, etc. ,35^ — 3^=6. ( 10 ). 

Hence, s^—s=2. ( 11 ). 

Completing square, 5^—s-^^/i=2^/i. (12). 

Extracting root, 5—^/2= ± IV2. ( 13 ). 

Transposing, 5=^2 ±172- i"^^)' 

Dropping negative value, 5=2. (15). 

o 3 f 

Substituting value of s in (7), ^=-=1. 

Extracting root, y= ± 1. 

Substituting value of sy in (3), a;=2X±l=±2. 

Hence, a;=±2; _)/=±l. Ans. 

2. Given 2^— 4a;>'+3x2=^l7 
And y — x2=16. 



to find a; a.ndy. 



3. Given 3^2+ 1=7^, 
And xy=6, 



Ans. x=±3, or ±173. 
y=±S, or ±473. 

to find ic and y. 

Ans. x=3; y=2. 



12 



AX.GEBRA. 

4. Given x^=19-\-xy, ] ^ ^ ^ - 

}• to find X and y. 
And 3a;j'=45. \ 

Ans. x=±S; 2/= ±3. 

5. Given x-f>.=9, I to find x and >.. 
And a;84-y=189, ) 

» Ans. x=z5 or 4; ^=4 or 5. 

CASE 3. 

WHEN THE two EQUATIONS ARE SYMMETRICAI, WITH 
RESPECT TO X and y. 
1. Given x-\-y=9t and ay/=18, to find x and ^. 
Soi^UTiON.— By the problem, x-{-y=.9. (1). 
By the problem, xy=iS. (2). 

Squaring (1) , x^+2xy+y^=Sl. ( 3 ). 

Multiplying (2) by 4, 4ay/=72. ( 4 ). 

Subtracting (4) from (3\ x^— 2ay/4-y==*- (5). 
Extracting square root of (5) , x—y= ±3. ( 6 ). 
Adding (1) and (6) , 2a;=12 or 6. 
Hence, x=6 or 3. 

Substituting value of x in (1), jj/=3 or 6. 
(Note that when x =6, j/=3 and vice versa; the 
values are not equal, but interchangeable). 

2. Given a^=l, I to find x and jK. 

And;trj/=72, ) 

SOI.UTION.— By the problem, x—y=l, 

' By the problem, xj=72. (2). 

Squaring (i; , x^-2xy+y^=l. ( 3 ). 

Multiplying (2) by 4, 4xj/=288. (4). 

Adding (3) and (4), x^-{- 2xy+y'=2S9. (5). 

Extracting square root of (5), x-\-y=±l7. (6). 

Adding (1) and (6), 2x=18 or —16. 

Hence x=9 or— 8. 

Substituting value of x in 1, y=S or —9. 

3. Given x'/'-j-/' =^' I to find x and jy. 
And X f^+y /«=13, 1 

13 



ALGEBRA. 

1/ V 
S01.UT1ON.— By the equation, x ' ^—y ' 2=5. ( 1 ), 

By the equation, x^l^ -}-y * ^^ =13. ( 2 ). 

Adding (1) and (2), 2x^^^ =18. (3). 

1/ 
Therefore, x '^=.9. 

And ;ir=81. 

1/ 
Substituting- value of x in (2), y ' ^=4. 

Therefore, jj/=16. 

4. Given a;3jj/2— xy=144, ) 

>■ to find ;tr and r. 
And x^y~xy^==12, ) ^ 

By the problem, 7?y^ — x'^y^=144. ( 1 ). 

By the problem, cc2j>/—a;j|/2=i2. . (2). 

Dividing the first member of (1) hjxy (—ay) and 

the second member by 12, (equivalents in (2) we have xy 

«12. (3). 

12. 
Hence, cc=y (4). 

144 
Substituting this value of x in (2), — - — 12;v = 12. 

(5). 
12 
Dividing by 12,— — jj/=l. (6). 

Clearing of fractions, 12— y^=y. ( 7 ). 

Transposing, y^-{-y=12, ( 8 ). 

Completing the square, y^+y+^/ 4=12^4. ( ^ ). 
Extracting the square root, jj/4-V2= ± 3V2. (10). 
Hence, ^=3 or —4. 
Substituting values of jj/ in (4), x=4 or — 3. 

5. Given x- 



/=36, j 



find X a.ndy. 

And a;jj/: "" 

Ans. a;=s9 or 4; y=s4 or 9. 
6. Given a;— r=1 



x—y=ly ) 
'=12, j 



to find X and jj/. 
And x>/=12, ) 

Ans. a;=4 or 3; y=i3 or 4. 



14 



ALGEBRA. 

7. Given xVs+y/s^^, ) . . . 

>• to find X and r. 
And ^'Vs— y/3=2, ) 

Ans. ;ir=27; y^^\. 

8. Given x2>/+xjv2=210 } 

. >• to find X and V. 
And x^y^Vd, [ ^ 

Ans. x-==l or 3; j^=3 or 7. 

PROBI^KMS. 

1. The difference of two numbers is 2, and the difl'er- 

ence of their squares is 28. What are the numbers? 

Ans. 8 and 6. 

2. The difference of two numbers is 2, and their pro- 
duct is 14. What are the numbers? 

Ans. The g-reater =7 or — 2; the less=2 or — 7. 

3. The sum of two numbers multiplied by the greater 
is 180, and their difference multiplied by the less is 16. 
What are the numbers? 

Ans. Greater, 9iX2 or 10; less, -y/l or 8. 

4. The area of a field is 960 square rods, and the length 

is 16 rods greater than the breadth. What are the length 

and the breadth of the field? 

Ans. L/ength, 40 rods; breadth, 24 rods. 

5. The area of a rectangle is 30 square inches, and 
its perimeter is 22 inches. Find the length and breadth of 

^ the rectangle. lyength, 6 inches; width, 5 inches. 

6. The area of a field is 108 square rods. If its length 
and breadth are each increased by 3 rods, the area will be 
180 square rods. Find the length and breadth of the field. 

Ans. Length, 12 rods; breadth, 9 rods. 

7. The area of a rectangular field is 168 square rods, 
and the length of its diagonal is 25 rods. What are the 
length and width of the field? 

Ans. L<ength, 24 rods; width, 7 rods. 

8. The difference of two numbers is 3, and their 
product is 17 greater than their sum. What are the num- 
bers? Ans. a;=7 or —2; jj/=4 or— 5. 

IS 



ALGEBRA. 

9. The sum of two numbers is 16, and the difference of 
their squares is 32. What are the numbers. 

Ans. 9 and 7. 

10. The sum of the numerator and the denominator of 
a certain fraction is 11. If each term be increased by 3, the 
value of the fraction will be increased by Vi8« What is the 
fraction? Ans. ^/e. 

11. The sum of two numbers is 7, and the sum of their 
reciprocals is 7i2' What are the numbers? Ans. 3 and 4. 

12. The product of two numbers is 40, and if the less 
be increased by 2 and the greater diminished by 2, their 
product will be 42. What are the numbers? 

Ans. Greater, 8; less, 5. 

13. The sum of two numbers is 290, and the difference 

of their square roots is 2. Find the numbers. 

Ans. 169 and 121. 

14. Divide the number 14 into two such parts that their 
product shall be 24 times their difference. Ans. 8 and 6. 

15. The difference of two numbers is 8 and their product 
exceeds their sum by 32. What are the numbers? 

Ans. 12 and 4. 

RATIO AND PROPORTION. 

Ratio is that relation between two quantities which is 

expressed by the quotient of the first divided by the second; 

a 
as, the ratio of a to ^ is t. 

The two quantities thus compared, as a and ^, tire 
called the terms of the ratio; the first term is called the 
antecedent, and the second the consequent. 

We find the ratio of one quantity to another by findidg 
how many times the first contains the second. 

The sign of ratio is a colon ( : ) placed between the 

two quantities compared. Ratio may also be denoted by 

placing" the consequent under the antecedent in the form of 

a 
a fraction. The ratio of a to d may be written aibf or t. 

16 



ALGEBRA 

The value of a ratio is the quotient of the antecedent 
divided by the consequent. It is equal to the value of the 
fraction by which it is expressed. 

Note.— Ratio can exist only between like quantities, or quantities 
of the same nature, so that one may be said to be equal to, or greater or 
less than the other. For example, a pound has a ratio to several pounds, 
or to a ton, but not to a foot, or to a bushel. 

It is evident that the same principles govern the rela- 
tion between antecedent and consequent that govern the 
relation between the terms of the fraction. Thus, (1) 
multiplying the antecedent, or dividing the consequent, 
multiplies the ratio. (2) Dividing the antecedent, or mul- 
tiplying the consequent, divides the ratio. (3) Multiply- 
ing or dividing both terms by the same quantity does not 
change the value of the ratio. 

PROPORTION. % 

Proportion is an equality of ratios. The expression 
3 : 4=6 : 8, or 3 : 4 : : 6 : 8, is a proportion. 

It will be seen that in order to have a proportion the 

first term must be the same multiple or part of the second, 

that the third is of the fourth. 

The sign of proportion is the double colon ( : : ), or 

a c 
the ^ign =. As, a:b -.'.c-.d, or, t= . It may be read, a 

is to 6 as c is to d, or, the ratio of a tj d equals the ratio of 
c to d. 

The first and last terms of a proportion are called the 
two extremes; the second and third terms are called the 

two means. 

Every proportion must contain at least four terms, since 
the equality is between two or more ratios, and each ratio 
has two terms. However, a proportion may be formed 
from three quantities, as one of the quantities may be re- 
peated so as to form two terms; a,&, c : d : : d : e. In such case 
the middle term or quantity repeated, is called a mean 
proportional; e, in this proportion, is a third pro- 
portional. 

17 



ALGEBRA 



The antecedent and consequent of the same couplet are 
called analogous terms. Homologous terms are 

either two antecedents or two consequents. 

TERMS. 

Alternation is when antecedent is compared with 
antecedent and consequent with consequent. Thus, if 
c:d::e'.fyhy alteration, cewd-.f. 

Inversion is when the antecedents are made the con- 
sequents. Thus, if c:d::e:fi by inversion, d\c\\f\e. 

Composition is when the sum of antecedent and con- 
sequent is compared either with the antecedent or the con- 
sequent. Thus, ii c'.d::e:f, then by composition, c-{-d :c:: 
e-\-f'. e, and c-\-d\c : : ^-f-/: e, and c-\-d \d\\ e-\-f'-f' 

Division is when the difference of antecedent and 
consequent is compared with either the antecedent or the 
consequent. Thus, if C'.d::e:f, then by division, c — d : c 
: \e—f\ e, and c — d -.d:: e — /:/. 

AXIOMS. 

1. ^Equimultiples of the same or of equal quantities 
are equal to one another. 

2. Those quantities of which the same or equal quan- 
tities are equimultiples are equal to each other. 

THEOREM I. 

If four quantities are proportional, the product of the 
extremes is equal to the product of the means. 

Ivet c:d::e:f. 

c e 
Since the four quantities areproportional, ^=^- Clear- 
ing of fractions, cf^=ed. 

Corollary. — If there are three proportional quantities, 
the product of the two extremes is equal to the square of 
the mean. Thus, if c:d::d:ey then by this proposition , 
cy^e=dy^dy i. e., ce=d^. 

18 



AX,GEBBA 

THEORIOM II. 

If the product of two quantities is equal to the product 
of two others, the one pair may be made the extremes and 
the other the means of a proportion. 

lyet cf=de. 

Then will c\d\\e\f. 

For, since cXfz=dy^e, dividing each of these equals by 
c e 
df, 2=f^ or, c:d::e\f. 

I^HDOREM III. 

If four quantities are proportional, they are pro- 
portional by alternation. 

lyct c:d:\e'.f, then c\e\\d\f. 

c e ^ 

For, since c:d::e:f, ^=7^. 

•»,,.*. d c d 

Multiplying by -, ~=j,oicc:e::d:f. 

THEJOREM IV. 

Ratios that are equal to the same ratio are equal to each 
other. 

L<et c'.dwm'.n. 
And e'.fwm'.n. 
Then will c\d\\ e:f. 

For, if C'.dwm'.n. 

c nt 

Then, 3=—. 
' d n 

And, since e •.f'.:m:n. 

^ e m 

Then will 7=—. 

c e m 

But since ^ and -, are each equal to ~, they must be 

C 6 

equal to each other, i. e. , ^~7> hence, c\d:'.e\f. 

19 



ALGEBRA 

THEOREM V. 

If four quantities are proportional, they are pro- 
portional when the terms of each couplet are inverted. 
Liet c\d\\e\f. 
Then, inversely, d\c\ :/: e. 
For, since c\d'.\e\f. 
By Theorem I. c/=dey 
or, dXe—cXf- 
Hence, by Theorem H.^dic ::f:e. 

THEOREM VI. 

If four quantities are proportional, they are also pro- 
portional by composition. 

Ivet c: d::e:f., then c-\-d \d\\ e-\-f:J. 

-r-. . ^ .■ c e 

For since c:d::ef\, d^l" 

C € 

Adding 1 to each member, ^+1=^-|- 1. 

c-\-d e4-; 
Incorporating- 1, — -j-=.—z-. 

Therefore, c-\-d :d:\ e^f\ f. 

THEOREM VII. 

If four quantities are proportional, they are also pro- 
portional by division. 

Ivet c'.d::e:J, then c — d \d\\ e—f'.f. 

C 6 

For, \.lc\d:\e\f, ■^=j, 

c e 

Subtracting 1 from each member, -, — 1= -^ — 1. 

" c—d e—f 
Incorporating 1, , z=—r. 

Therefore, c — d \d\\ e—f: J. 

THEROEM VIII. 

If four quantities are proportional, the sum of the first 
and second is to their difference as the sum of the third 
and fourth is to their difference. 

20 



AXOEBBA. 

lyet c\d\\e\fy then, c-\-d : c~d : : ^+/ : e~/. 

By Theorem VI, c-\~d -.d:: e-j-f: f. 

And by Theorem VII, c—d .d:: e—f\f. 

By alternation these propositions become, 

c-^d'.e-irfx'.d',/. 

And c — d : e—f-. : d :/. 

Hence, by Theorem IV, c-\-d : e-j-f: : c—d : e~f. 

Or, alternately, c-\-d : c — d : : e-\-f: e~f. 

THS0R9M IX. 

If any number of quantities are proportional, any 
antecedent is to its consequent, as the sum of all the ante- 
cedents is to the sum of all the consequents. 

Let c:d:: e:/::m:n, etc. 

Then c:d:: c-\-e-\-m : ^-f-/-f-w, etc. ^ 

For by Theorem I, c/=de. 

And, cnssidm. 

Also, cd—de. 

Adding, cd-\-cf-\-cni=^C'\-d9-\-dfn. 

Factoring, c (J-^-n-^-d )==rf( c-ifm-\-e ). 

Hence, by Theorem ll,c'.d\ -.{c-^e-^m ) : (</4/-f *» )• 

TH]BORSM X. 

^Equimultiples of two quantities are propertional t« the 

quantities themselves. 

I^et cxdwe-J. 

c e be e 

Then. 2=^p and ^=^ 

PROBI,SMS. 

1. The first three terms of a proportion are a, 12 aa4 
6. What is the fourth term? 

( Ltt x^ thexequired term, th«a « : 12 : : 6 :x. Therefore, 
by Theorem I, 8;raB72. Hence, .ir»9. Ans» ) 

2. Th« last three terms of a proportion are 7, • a«d 5^ 
Wtet ia tke flrst? Aas. 1. 



ALGEBItA. 

3. Find a mean proportion between 9 and 36. 

Ans. 18. 

4. Find :i: if 3+;r : x—2 : : 7 : 14. Ans. 7. 

5. Find two numbers, the greater of which shall be to 
the less as their sum is to 42, and as their differance is to 6. 

Ans. 24 and 32. 

6. The product of two numbers is 24, and the differ- 
ence of their cubes is to the cube of their difference as 19 
to 1. What are the numbers? Ans. 6 and 4. 

7. What is the length of the sides of two square fields 
if a side of one is 10 rods longer than a side of the other, 
and their areas are as 9 to 4? Ans. 20 rods; 30 rods. 

8. Find two numbers whose ratio is 3 : 4, and whose sum 
is to the sum of their squares as 3V2 : 25. Ans. 6 and 8. 




22 



ALGEBRA. 
OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

(SIXTH PAPER.) 

1. How does a quadratic equation differ from a simple 
one? 

2. What is a pure quadratic equation? An affected 
quadratic equation? 

3. What is the first step in the solution of quadratic 
equations? 

4. How many and what methods are there for reduc- 
ing* an affected quadratic equation? 

5. When is an equation in the quadratic form? 

6. When is an equation homogeneous? Symmetrical? 

7. How solve simultaneous equations when one of the 
equations is simple and the other quadratic? 

8. How solve when both equations are quadratic and 
homogenous? 

9. How solve when the two equations are symmetrical 
with respect to x and jv? 

10. What is ratio? What are the terms of a ratio? 
What are they called? 

11. How find the ratio of one quantity to another? 

12. How is ratio denoted? What is the value of a ratio? 

13. Between what kind of quantities can ratios exist? 

14. Define proportion. What is the sign of proportion? 

15. What is the number of terms in a proportion? 

16. What is a mean proportional? A third pro- 
portional? 

17. What is meant by analogous terms? Homo- 
logous terms? 

18. What is alternation? Inversion? Compo- 
sition? Division? (Define as applied to proportion). 

19. Prove that ratios that are equal to the same ratio 
are equal to each other. 

20. Show that if four quantities are proportional they 
are proportional when the terms of each couplet are in- 
verted. 



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